27
Association of academic reading skills and
the meta-comprehension process in rural
students
Hansel Fernando Rodríguez Gómez1
To reference this article / Cómo citar este artículo / Para
citar este artigo: Rodríguez-Gómez, H. F. (2025). Association of
academic reading skills and the meta-comprehension process in rural
students. Revista UNIMAR, 43(2), 27-43. https://doi.org/10.31948/
ru.v43i2.4661
Reception date: February 5, 2025
Review date: March 6, 2025
Approval date: May 17, 2025
Abstract
This research aimed to determine the relationship between academic reading
skills (accuracy, comprehension, and speed) and meta-comprehension
processes (planning, monitoring, and evaluation) among students at a rural
educational institution in Caldas, Colombia. This issue arose from the fact that
rural students consistently performed worse on reading tests than their peers in
urban areas and private institutions. The theoretical framework focused on the
notions of reading, comprehension, and metacognition. It was supported by the
Infantile Neuropsychological Assessment Battery and the Reading Awareness
Scale to establish a comparative analysis. The quantitative, non-experimental,
descriptive-correlational, and cross-sectional research study showed that few
variables of the reading and meta-comprehension processes present a direct
correlation. Consequently, an explicit association between reading skills and
meta-comprehension could not be established. Despite some students presenting
difficulties with certain skills or processes, the evaluations obtained from the
child neuropsychological evaluation battery and the reading awareness scale
suggest that they can be considered conscious readers of their comprehension
process.
Keywords: comprehension; reading; meta- comprehension; academic skills
1 Master in Education, Universidad de Caldas. Professor, Secretaría de Educación del Valle del Cauca, Colombia. E-mail: hfrg.1320@
gmial.com
Result of the research entitled: Asociación entre las habilidades académicas de lectura y metacomprensión en una muestra de niños
de educación básica secundaria de un contexto rural, developed from August 2020 to August 2022, in Caldas, Colombia, as part of the
Master’s Degree in Education at the Universidad de Caldas.
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28
Asociación de las habilidades académicas de lectura
y el proceso de metacomprensión en estudiantes
rurales
Resumen
El objetivo de esta investigación fue determinar la asociación entre las habilidades
académicas de lectura (precisión, comprensión y velocidad) y el proceso de
metacomprensión (planeación, monitoreo y evaluación) en estudiantes de
una institución educativa rural del departamento de Caldas, Colombia. Este
propósito surgió a partir de los bajos resultados obtenidos sistemáticamente
por los estudiantes rurales en pruebas de lectura, en comparación con sus pares
de zonas urbanas y de instituciones privadas. El marco teórico se centró en las
nociones de lectura, comprensión y metacognición, y se apoyó en la batería de
evaluación neuropsicológica infantil (ENI) y en la escala de conciencia lectora
(ESCOLA), con el fin de establecer un análisis comparativo. La investigación, de
enfoque cuantitativo, diseño no experimental, alcance descriptivo-correlacional
y corte transversal, evidenció que existen pocas variables del proceso lector y
de metacomprensión que presentan una correlación directa. En consecuencia,
no fue posible establecer una asociación explícita entre las habilidades de
lectura y la metacomprensión. Se concluye que, a pesar de que algunos
estudiantes presentan dificultades en ciertas habilidades o procesos, pueden
ser considerados lectores conscientes de su proceso comprensivo, según las
valoraciones obtenidas a partir de la batería de evaluación neuropsicológica
infantil y la escala de conciencia lectora.
Palabras clave: comprensión; lectura; metacomprensión; habilidades
académicas
Associação entre habilidades de leitura acadêmica
e o processo de meta-compreensão em estudantes
rurais
Resumo
O objetivo desta pesquisa foi determinar a relação entre as habilidades de
leitura acadêmica (precisão, compreensão e velocidade) e os processos de
meta-compreensão (planejamento, monitoramento e avaliação) entre os alunos
de uma instituição educacional rural em Caldas, Colômbia. Esse objetivo surgiu
do desempenho consistentemente baixo dos alunos rurais em testes de leitura
em comparação com seus colegas de áreas urbanas e instituições privadas. A
estrutura teórica concentrou-se nas noções de leitura, compreensão e meta-
cognição. Ele foi apoiado pela Bateria de Avaliação Neuropsicológica Infantil e
pela Escala de Consciência de Leitura para estabelecer uma análise comparativa.
O estudo de pesquisa quantitativo, não experimental, descritivo-correlacional e
transversal mostrou que poucas variáveis dos processos de leitura e meta-
compreensão apresentam uma correlação direta. Consequentemente, não foi
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e-ISSN: 2216-0116e-ISSN: 2216-0116 ISSN: 0120-4327ISSN: 0120-4327 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.unimarDOI: https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.unimar
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Association of academic reading skills and the meta-comprehension process in rural students
29 Hansel Fernando Rodríguez Gómez
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possível estabelecer uma associação explícita entre as habilidades de leitura e
a meta-compreensão. Apesar de alguns alunos apresentarem dificuldades com
determinadas habilidades ou processos, as avaliações obtidas com a bateria de
avaliação neuropsicológica infantil e a escala de percepção de leitura sugerem
que eles podem ser considerados leitores conscientes de seu processo de
compreensão.
Palavras-chave: compreensão; leitura; meta-compreensão; habilidades
acadêmicas
Introduction
According to Bautista-Macia and González
(2019), the social divide in Colombia widens when
processes essential to collective well-being lack
a clear social purpose. In this context, literacy
education in Colombia’s numerous rural schools
(spanning more than 30,000 locations) assumes
particular importance, given its fundamental
role as outlined in Article 22 of the 1994
General Education Law. However, rural students’
consistently lower academic results compared to
their urban and private school peers (Instituto
Colombiano para la Evaluación de la Educación
[Icfes], 2018) suggest that this process is not
fulfilling its potential to mitigate inequalities.
In light of this, this research exercise aims to
examine the conceptualization and practice of
academic reading skills and metacognition in
a rural Colombian context to determine their
relationship.
Reading is the fundamental principle of the
human learning process, and metacognition is
one of the essential components considered
crucial to reading comprehension and critical
thinking. Reading is a broad concept that
encompasses discussions about linguistic
and academic skills, as well as the cognitive
processes involved in student learning. From a
neuropsychological perspective, according to
Roselli et al. (2004), reading is an academic skill
that develops in school. Reading is a vast field
in which methods of acquisition and study, such
as measurement and evaluation, are discussed.
Matute et al. (2013) emphasize that reading and
cognition facilitate the development of additional
academic abilities. Matute (2011) agrees with
Cassany et al. (1994) that the reading process
is a product of schooling.
García-García et al. (2018), for their part, argue
that reading «requires procedures, sequences of
actions, and processes that must be intentionally
directed and harmonized with cognitive skills,
abilities, and actions to construct meaning and
comprehend» (p. 159). Reading processes that
lack a specific purpose do not contribute to the
construction of meaning; rather, they have a
direct negative impact on students’ academic
performance. Based on this premise, one
possible cause of school failure in Colombia could
be difficulties with the reading process, given
that reading inherently involves comprehension
(García-García et al., 2018).
Roselli et al. (2004) identified accuracy,
comprehension, and speed as fundamental
reading skills that children progressively
develop during their schooling. These skills
have traditionally been assessed using direct
measures and analyzed through age-adjusted
percentiles in instruments such as the Infantile
Neuropsychological Assessment (INA). These
skills develop from global word recognition in
kindergarten to attention to linguistic morphology
in later stages. The development of reading is
considered a comprehensive process involving a
child’s physical, psychological, and social growth
(Matute et al., 2013).
According to the 2018–2021 Saber Test Report
and the 2018 PISA Results Report (ICFES, 2020a),
Colombia’s average reading performance does
not meet international standards. These reports
have generated discussion and reflection on
student education in Colombia because they
provide an assessment of students’ academic
status based on a combination of quantitative
and qualitative data. A constant percentage
of students score at the insufficient and
minimum levels, accounting for 40% and 50%
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of the evaluated population (ICFES, 2018).
Similarly, the National Report on Results for
Colombia PISA 2018 (ICFES, 2020b) reveals that
Colombia’s average score is 412 points. This falls
short of the average scores of OECD and non-
OECD countries, which are 487 and 496 points,
respectively.
The difficulty in developing academic reading
skills may be greater in rural classrooms,
as noted by Arias (2017), due to systemic
deficiencies in this context. Research on the
subject highlights the concerns of teachers
and other groups, ultimately leading to the
development of strategies to improve the
situation. Ochoa and Aragón (2005) state that
teaching metacognitive strategies in a natural
classroom setting can promote metacognitive
development and improve the reading process,
particularly in rural areas.
On the other hand, metacognition in
reading comprehension is referred to as
metacomprehension, which is defined as the
reader’s knowledge of their comprehension.
It is an instant awareness of how reading is
perceived and how it is utilized for learning.
Flavell (1987) distinguishes two processes of
metacognition to differentiate between what a
person knows and what they can do with that
knowledge. Flavell (1993) states: «We could
say that cognitive strategies are used to make
cognitive progress and that metacognitive
strategies are used to monitor that progress.
Monitoring one’s progress on a task is an
important metacognitive activity» (p. 160).
According to Soto et al. (2019), a key
characteristic of meta-understanding is its
positive impact on student performance. Unlike
Solé (1997) and Díaz-Barriga and Hernández
(2002), who consider prior knowledge a pillar of
reading comprehension, Soto et al. (2019) argue
that reading strategies can help readers with
limited prior knowledge use logic and common
sense to fill in conceptual gaps. Metacognitive
knowledge relates to the transfer of learning,
meaning that the knowledge acquired can
be applied in contexts other than where it
was originally learned. This concept is gaining
popularity in active pedagogy as the final stage
of the teaching and learning process.
Due to its significance in the theory of
metacognition and reading comprehension in
educational settings, research with a timeframe
greater than seven years was necessary to
understand the background of the subject of
study. Although these issues have been relevant
since the early 20th century, recent research,
motivated by concerns about academic
performance in elementary and secondary
education, has focused on metacognitive
strategies for improving reading comprehension,
which address health, cognitive, and social
aspects to identify practical solutions.
Bolaños and Gómez (2015), Santiago et al.
(2009), and Blasco and Allueva (2010) point out
the difficulty of reading comprehension among
school-aged children and attribute it to the
underdevelopment of metacognitive strategies
at this stage. These authors agree that an
absence of solid academic reading skills can
lead to academic failure, emphasizing the need
to integrate metacognitive development into
the curriculum as a fundamental component of
student training.
According to a study by Rodríguez et al.
(2016), an absence of metacognitive strategies
developed during schooling leads to persistent
reading difficulties and increases the disparity
between students of different performance
levels. The authors suggest that these
metacomprehension strategies can be based
on Vygotsky’s theory of the zone of proximal
development, which they consider fundamental
to developing the reading process.
On the other hand, Berrocal and Ramírez
(2019) and Edossa et al. (2019) disagree
on the significance of age in developing
metacomprehension, although brain maturation
influences skills, including reading performance.
These authors agree with Rodríguez et al. (2016)
that the lack of intervention with metacognitive
strategies exacerbates inequality in reading
self-regulation.
Soto et al. (2019) found that accuracy and
planning (variables in the reading awareness
scale) improve the inference process, supporting
the hypothesis that greater awareness of the
reading process is linked to higher comprehension.
Association of academic reading skills and the meta-comprehension process in rural students
31 Hansel Fernando Rodríguez Gómez
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Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) reveals that students with strong inferential skills report
greater metacognitive knowledge.
Research on metacognition and reading comprehension has neglected their impact and formative
development in rural contexts, as evidenced by the lack of national and regional studies on
metacomprehension as a key element for improving academic performance in these areas.
Therefore, the importance of this research lies in its contribution to the analysis and discussion of
metacomprehension in rural area students. While reading performance has been a concern in local
academia, studies focus on test results and non-rural populations, revealing a local epistemological
and research gap regarding the association between reading skills and metacomprehension in
rural areas.
The purpose of this study is to determine the association between academic reading skills and
metacomprehension performance in a sample of students from a rural area in the department of
Caldas, Colombia. To this end, the following question was posed: What is the association between
academic reading skills and metacomprehension performance in a sample of secondary school
students from a public institution in a rural area? Including the metacomprehension process in
this context serves as a mitigation strategy, allowing the problem to be addressed from another
perspective (cognitive sciences) in the face of the multiplicity of didactic contributions arising
from similar research. In this way, concise information is obtained, as reading studies reveal that
metacognition is a related process, but it is not widely developed in rural areas.
Methodology
The research used a quantitative method with a descriptive and correlational scope; the design
was non-experimental and cross-sectional (Hernández & Mendoza, 2018). The correlational scope
between academic reading skills and metacomprehension was based on descriptive principles, as
it was necessary to specify characteristics and collect information on a phenomenon through the
variables employed, including the Infantile Neuropsychological Assessment (INA) and the Reading
Awareness Scale (Escola).
Sample
Students in sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, in 2021, from a public educational institution
in the rural area of the municipality of Supía, Caldas, Colombia (see Table 1).
Table 1
Sample breakdown by gender and grade
Gender Grade 6 Grade 7 Grade 8 Grade 9 Total
Female 4 7 1 3 15
Male 10 0 6 1 17
Total 14 7 7 4 32
Note. The discrimination began in May, coinciding with the enrollment of the participating educational
institution.
The sample was non-probabilistic, consisting of 32 students who met the inclusion criteria: being
within a maximum age of 15 years and 11 months and enrolled in 6th, 7th, 8th, or 9th grade.
Association of academic reading skills and the meta-comprehension process in rural students
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Instruments
The Infantile Neuropsychological Assessment Battery was used, along with measures of accuracy,
comprehension, and speed. Scale 56 of the Reading Awareness Scale Battery was also used.
Reading awareness scale (Escola)
Puente et al. (2009) propose that, to establish the level of awareness of one’s reading process, one
must assess the reader’s perception and cognitive abilities. The reading awareness scale allows for
evaluating an individual as a reader, which helps in developing intervention strategies to address
difficulties encountered. The age range for the application of the Escola is between 8 and 13 years,
but this is not established as an insurmountable limit to delve into the reading consciousness of
the person who reads. When applying the Escola, the profile of the person being assessed is drawn
up according to the established scale; in this way, the interval in which the student is placed is
determined, according to the process and the variable, to establish whether the reading awareness
is very deficient (range 0–25), deficient (range 25-50), adequate (range 50-75) or outstanding
(range 75-100).
Infantile Neuropsychological Assessment (INA)
The INA is a battery that measures the different skills children and young people develop during
their school years. According to Matute et al. (2013), the age range for its administration is between
5 years and 16 years, to achieve a broader analytical scope throughout the student’s school life. In
this case, the domain selected was ‘Reading’, and the designed tests were applied. These tests are
ultimately scored and ranked using percentiles that identify poor, average, or advanced performance
in specific areas. It should be noted that the 26th percentile is the indicator of low performance.
Therefore, those who obtain this score or fall below require educational support to address the
cognitive or academic deficiency identified in the test results. Table 2 details the variables for the
two batteries.
Table 2
Discrimination of variables in the INA and Escola batteries
Topic Variable Variable Type
Sociodemographic
Age (years completed) Quantitative ratio
Grade Qualitative ordinal
Sex Qualitative nominal
Escola
Person planning Quantitative ratio
Task Planning Quantitative ratio
Text Planning Quantitative ratio
Planning score Quantitative ratio
Person Supervision Quantitative ratio
Task Supervision Quantitative ratio
Text Supervision Quantitative ratio
Supervision Score Quantitative ratio
Person Evaluation Quantitative ratio
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Topic Variable Variable Type
Escola
Task Evaluation Quantitative ratio
Text Evaluation Quantitative ratio
Evaluation Score Quantitative ratio
Overall Score Quantitative ratio
INA
Reading syllables precision:
ReadSyllablesP
Quantitative ratio
Reading words precision:
ReadWordsPre
Quantitative ratio
Reading non-words accuracy:
ReadNOWordsPrec
Quantitative ratio
Reading sentence precision:
ReadSentPre
Quantitative ratio
Number of words with errors
when reading aloud: NWWEWRA
Quantitative ratio
Reading comprehension
sentences: ReadCompSent
Quantitative ratio
Reading comprehension aloud:
ReadCA
Quantitative ratio
Comprehension RCA, question 4:
CRCAQ4
Quantitative ratio
Silent reading comprehension of
a text: SRCofaT
Quantitative ratio
Reading-aloud speed: RAS Quantitative ratio
Silent reading speed: SRS Quantitative ratio
INA variables are designed to evaluate the cognitive and academic abilities that children demonstrate
at a specific age within a given testing or learning domain. According to Matute et al. (2013), reading
involves accuracy, or the child’s ability to correctly complete the assigned task. Correct and incorrect
answers are quantitatively assessed, except for the sentence reading task. Comprehension refers
to the ability to understand and retain the information contained in a text. Speed refers to how long
it takes the child to read a given text. This is calculated by dividing the number of words read per
minute by the total time taken to read the text (Rodríguez, 2023).
The reading awareness process includes sub-processes that enable readers to become aware of
their learning. According to Puente et al. (2009), planning is defined as the process of searching
for information. In this process, the reader’s attitude and the strategies they deem appropriate
for achieving the objective of the task are assessed. By nature, supervision involves monitoring
the subject’s attention and effort while performing the task, utilizing strategies chosen during
the planning stage, and managing the reader’s self-efficacy and perseverance when encountering
difficulties in understanding a text. Finally, evaluation measures reading performance and confirms
the appropriateness of the strategies (Rodríguez, 2023).
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Regarding the established variables, Puente et al. (2009) state that they are fundamental for
the development of metacognition. The task involves identifying information that could impact
the subject’s learning process. Therefore, how well the subject performs depends on their level
of awareness. The person, as a variable, allows for the distinction of mental processes; in this,
age, prior knowledge, relevance, interest, motivation, or skill on the subject are crucial. On the
other hand, the text variable refers to the characteristics that contribute to comprehension and
memory. These characteristics include vocabulary, syntax, authorial intent, and formal structure
(Rodríguez, 2023).
This study was carried out in four phases. First, experts in the areas of the conceptual categories
(INA-Escola) created and validated the material. In the second phase, permission was requested
from the educational institution. Then, the project and rationale for the research process were
presented to the education community, and permission was requested from the guardians of
potential participants. In the third phase, student enrollment was verified based on the inclusion
and exclusion criteria. The fourth phase involved statistical analysis of the data and preparation of
the final report.
In this way, the total enrollment of secondary school students at the educational institution was
veried, as well as the number of potential students for the sample. Additionally, as of May 2022,
the Integrated Enrollment System (SIMAT) was consulted, the instrument calibration process
was carried out, and the method for administering the INA and Escola assessment batteries was
established, bearing in mind space and time constraints.
Data on academic reading skills and metacognitive processes were collected using the INA and
Escola assessment batteries. The recommendations for administering both instruments were
followed to ensure clarity of the results, as stated by Matute et al. (2013). They recommend
applying the INA in a calm environment that limits distractions and allows for time management
according to the tasks in the test. Similarly, Puente et al. (2009) suggest choosing a space that
offers freedom and time.
Results
When categorizing students according to Puente et al. (2009), the greatest deficiencies identified
in children were found in text planning, person-text supervision, and task and text evaluation.
Likewise, the overall supervision rating presented less difficulty (see Table 3). It was also observed
that, in the overall score, all children were placed as ‘Adequate’ or ‘Outstanding’, because one
child who was placed as ‘Poor’ or ‘Very poor’ in Text Planning, was not placed as ‘Very poor’ in
Task Planning.
Table 3
School statistics broken down by direct scores and profiles
Process
Mean Standard Deviation Coefficient of
Variation (%)
Direct
scoring Profile Direct
scoring Profile Direct
scoring Profile
Person Planning 7.8 64.6% 1,9 15.8% 24.5% 24.5%
Task Planning 14.8 61.8% 2,9 12.1% 19.5% 19.5%
Text Planning 9.9 62.1% 3,1 19.4% 31.3% 31.3%
Planning Score 32.6 62.6% 5,6 10.8% 17.1% 17.3%
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Process
Mean Standard Deviation Coefficient of
Variation (%)
Direct
scoring Profile Direct
scoring Profile Direct
scoring Profile
Person
Supervision 4.8 59.8% 1,4 17.0% 28.5% 28.5%
Task Supervision 8.9 74.0% 2,0 17.0% 23.0% 23.0%
Text Supervision 7.8 64.8% 1,7 14.5% 22.3% 22.3%
Supervision
Score 21.4 67.0% 3.2 10.0% 14.9% 14.9%
Person
Evaluation 7.8 65.4% 1.8 15.1% 23.2% 23.2%
Task Evaluation 4.6 57.4% 1.5 18.5% 32.2% 32.2%
Text Evaluation 4.7 59.0% 1.5 18.6% 31.5% 31.5%
Evaluation Score 17.2 61.3% 2.7 9.6% 15.7% 15.7%
Overall Score 71.1 63.5% 7.7 6.8% 10.8% 10.8%
Note. The score corresponds to the Shapiro-Wilk test (Razali & Wah, 2011).
According to Table 4, the mean percentiles for academic reading skills (ENI) showed that children
reached the 50th percentile for reading comprehension aloud. However, for reading speed aloud
and silently, the percentiles were the lowest. It should be noted that student scores were varied,
with most coefficients of variation exceeding 70%.
Table 4
ENI statistics (direct scores and percentiles)
Variable Reading Percentile
Mean Std. Dev. C V (%) Mean Std. Dev. C V (%)
Reading syllables
precision: ReadSyllablesP 7.7 0.7 8.9% 42.5 20.6 48.6%
Reading words precision:
ReadWordsPre 10.5 1.6 15.4% 46.5 10.1 21.8%
Reading non-
words accuracy:
ReadNOWordsPrec
6.9 0.9 12.7% 30.9 24.3 78.5%
Reading sentence
precision: ReadSentPre 8.1 1.3 16.0% 29.4 25.4 86.3%
Number of words with
errors when reading
aloud: NWWEWRA
2.7 2.0 71.9% 27.2 26.5 97.5%
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Variable Reading Percentile
Mean Std. Dev. C V (%) Mean Std. Dev. C V (%)
Reading comprehension
sentences:
ReadCompSent
7.6 1.4 18.1% 28.5 27.1 95.0%
Reading comprehension
aloud: ReadCA 5.8 1.9 33.1% 58.1 31.9 54.9%
Comprehension RCA,
question 4: CRCAQ4 1.5 0.8 54.6% - - -
Silent reading
comprehension of a text:
SRCofaT
3.9 2.2 56.1% 41.4 35.4 85.5%
Reading-aloud speed:
RAS 101.1 29.5 29.2% 23.0 24.1 104.8%
Silent reading speed:
SRS 119.3 47.1 39.5% 26.6 27.6 103.9%
Note. The score corresponds to the Shapiro-Wilk test (Razali & Wah, 2011).
Spearman’s correlation coefficient was used to determine if there was a dependency between
the variables when establishing a correlational relationship. According to Table 5, the following
correlations were found:
• Reading words accuracy, reading non-words accuracy, number of words with errors, reading
aloud, reading comprehension sentences, reading comprehension aloud, RCA question 4
comprehension, silent reading comprehension of a text, and reading speed aloud do not
correlate with the planning, supervision, or evaluation of Escola.
• Children who tend to score high on reading syllable accuracy tend to do so also on text
assessment.
• Sentence reading accuracy directly correlates with text planning, text monitoring, and overall
planning score.
• Silent reading comprehension of a text correlates negatively with task planning and positively
with task evaluation.
• Reading-aloud speed is positively correlated with person planning, text planning, overall
planning score, and overall score
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Table 5
Spearman correlation between INA – Escola (P-values)
Variable
Sentence Reading
accuracy
Reading word
accuracy
Reading non-word
accuracy
Reading sentence
accuracy
Number of words
with errors when
reading aloud
Reading
comprehension
sentences
Reading
comprehension aloud
Comprehension RCA.
question 4
Silent reading
comprehension of a
text
Reading-aloud speed
Silent reading speed
Person
planning 0.750 0.491 0.978 0.870 0.611 0.713 0.797 0.201 0.479 0.010 0.716
Task
planning 0.578 0.507 0.560 0.213 0.069 0.612 0.133 0.418 0.003 0.120 0.590
Text
planning 0.193 0.171 0.118 0.002 0.750 0.492 0.372 0.368 0.271 0.002 0.481
Person
supervision 0.587 0.973 0.795 0.344 0.276 0.782 0.568 0.784 0.151 0.278 0.066
Task
supervision 0.828 0.518 0.214 0.715 0.388 0.271 0.811 1.000 0.058 0.420 0.092
Text
supervision 0.860 0.806 0.944 0.031 0.876 0.728 0.434 0.391 0.948 0.650 0.260
Person
evaluation 0.771 0.315 0.293 0.229 0.478 0.243 0.310 0.678 0.342 0.723 0.252
Task
evaluation 0.263 0.424 0.933 0.827 0.486 0.253 0.385 0.930 0.019 0.624 0.587
Text
evaluation 0.041 0.644 0.906 0.599 0.940 0.064 0.897 0.250 0.914 0.148 0.164
Overall
planning
score
0.503 0.102 0.187 0.021 0.385 0.586 0.812 0.584 0.081 0.001 0.331
Overall
supervision
score
0.543 0.938 0.712 0.666 0.967 0.461 0.930 0.971 0.128 0.170 0.211
Overall
evaluation
score
0.325 0.856 0.708 0.977 0.450 0.149 0.190 0.312 0.095 0.362 0.718
Overall
score 0.523 0.349 0.357 0.091 0.871 0.688 0.542 0.931 0.943 0.002 0.360
Note. The existing correlations between variables are described using the Pearson correlation
coefficient for normally distributed data and the Spearman coefficient for non-normal data.
Discussion
This study revealed that no research has been conducted at the regional level —the Colombian
coffee area— examining the direct relationship between metacognition and reading skills. Similarly,
a correlation was found between some of the variables measured by the two evaluation batteries,
Association of academic reading skills and the meta-comprehension process in rural students
38 Hansel Fernando Rodríguez Gómez
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e-ISSN: 2216-0116e-ISSN: 2216-0116 ISSN: 0120-4327ISSN: 0120-4327 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.unimarDOI: https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.unimar
Rev. UnimarRev. Unimar Vol. 43 No. 2 pp. 27-43Vol. 43 No. 2 pp. 27-43
which can be cited as a precedent. However,
the results indicate that there is generally no
association between reading performance and
metacomprehension. Blasco and Allueva (2010)
determined that the association between reading
comprehension and metacognition is significant,
though not direct or correlated.
On the other hand, the results only allowed
for pointing out an association between some
variables:
• Reading syllables precision - evaluation
text
• Reading sentences precision - planning
text
• Text supervision-global planning score
• Silent reading comprehension of a text -
task planning and task evaluation
• Reading-aloud speed - person planning
• Text planning-overall score planning-
overall score.
In this context, students who are aware of their
reading process do not necessarily develop
reading comprehension skills. According
to Soto et al. (2019), metacomprehension
development occurs frequently because the
reader immediately realizes their possible error
during the monitoring process that is intrinsic to
reading.
Intervened students are outlined as adequate
and outstanding conscious readers (Puente et
al., 2009). The previous concepts align with
those of an efficient reader, as described by Solé
(1997). This can be used to perform a deeper
analysis and reflection for another research
work, because the intervals proposed by the
Escola do not determine when one categorization
ends and another begins. It should be noted
that although the Escola is the most widely
used Spanish language test to measure reading
comprehension, it is a very open measure
because the results overlap. Considering that the
first interval is 0 to 25 and the second is 25 to
50, it is unclear whether the estimated results at
25 belong to the ‘Very poor’ or ‘Poor’ categories.
A similar case is presented with scores of 50
and 75. Consequently, this can be unclear when
profiling students’ reading awareness.
On the other hand, it is acknowledged that
students who receive intervention have difficulty
with text planning. According to Soto et al.
(2019), planning can be a significant predictor
of positive reading comprehension. Similarly,
supervision of the student and text, as well as
the evaluation of the task and text, reveal ‘Poor’
and ‘Very poor’ profiles. It is unclear whether
the reader has questioned his progress or if he
is using the appropriate strategies to achieve
the objectives outlined in the planning phase.
He is not even considering the characteristics
of the text itself to detect the causes of not
understanding it (variable) (Jiménez, 2004).
Therefore, a conscious reader should exceed the
‘very poor’ and ‘poor’ intervals in all variables.
Following this premise, better performance in the
other variables allows for placement in intervals
50-75 and 75-100. However, the gap that remains
in this area cannot be ignored. It is necessary to
analyze the appropriate scores, since they reveal
deficient profiles. It can be concluded that some
students in the sample excel in certain areas but
not in others. Additionally, it would be incorrect
to analyze this phenomenon in light of age or
school grade because the range of the battery
INA discriminates against profiles based on age.
In the Escola, it is concluded that the sample is
aware of its reading process.
According to the scale of the instrument, it is
relevant to assume the 26th percentile as the
measure used to determine the significance and
attention of a situation that should be reinforced
in the evaluated students. This allows us to
identify which aspects should be monitored.
Regarding pressure and speed tests, it is notable
that the results are not significantly higher than
this percentile.
As for speed skill, the difficulty is evident. This
subtest is affected, which aligns with the study by
De los Reyes et al. (2008), who linked the speed
variable to impairment fluency. This can lead to
problems recognizing separate words, reading
aloud, and understanding complete phrases.
Rosselli et al. (2006), on the other hand, suggest
Association of academic reading skills and the meta-comprehension process in rural students
39 Hansel Fernando Rodríguez Gómez
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e-ISSN: 2216-0116e-ISSN: 2216-0116 ISSN: 0120-4327ISSN: 0120-4327 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.unimarDOI: https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.unimar
Rev. UnimarRev. Unimar Vol. 43 No. 2 pp. 27-43Vol. 43 No. 2 pp. 27-43
that the effect of speed on Spanish reading in
the studied samples is due to language and age.
The age range of the sample was 11 to 15 years.
Specifically, as people grow older, this process
improves; however, the impairment still exists,
according to the scale.
Therefore, high scores in reading words and
text evaluation are the result of similar cognitive
processes that students must perform. Silent
reading comprehension correlates negatively
with task planning and positively with task
evaluation. According to Jiménez et al. (2009),
this is because valuation procedures are not
uniform for all cognitive activities within the
monitoring process.
There is no relationship between being a
good reader and being aware of the reading
process. This is due to the nature and function
of the evaluation battery. From a structural
perspective, academic reading skills and
reading comprehension awareness tasks are
not related because they evaluate different
processes. Rather, the relationship is based on
the authenticity of the reading and the intention
behind it. This investigation began with the
hypothesis that to be a good reader, one must
understand what reading is and what it implies.
For this reason, the relationship between
reading and being aware of the reading
process is intrinsic. Quantitatively submitting
it to a research process is a way of validating
academic processes.
Conclusions
The results of an investigation lead to several
reflections when synthesized. First, there is no
direct association between academic reading
skills and metacomprehension. There is no
complete association; it only exists partially
in the case of some variables. Second, INA
processes are immersive, so students develop
them naturally. This research does not prove
that students who are aware of their reading
process understand texts better. It can only
suggest that they are more accurate or read
faster. However, this possibility can be inferred
from the mostly positive results of applying
the measures of both tests. According to
Solé (1997), Puente et al (2009), and Matute
et al. (2013), the students are competent,
adequate, outstanding, and metacognitive
readers.
When assessing reading performance based
on INA reading tasks, it was possible to
demonstrate shortcomings in rural public
education student training. Secondary school
students in rural areas manage to succeed in
each task, retain the information in a text, and
understand it. Although the average scores
cause the variable to be approved above the
26th percentile in almost all tasks, a model of the
national educational evaluation is reflected in
which students demonstrate some of their most
developed skills. That is, if they demonstrate
greater precision or understanding than speed,
the result will be a percentile above 26. This does
not seek to stigmatize the national evaluation
model, but rather to raise awareness of it.
Therefore, the performance in terms of precision
and understanding is positive regarding the INA.
However, speed performance requires further
analysis because their tasks are classified in the
26th and 23rd percentiles.
Similarly, this investigation revealed that
improving the speed skill could enhance
performance, as one of the tasks scored in the
23rd percentile. Students do not read the required
number of words in a given time. The causes are
unknown, but it is assumed that context, or the
type of school, influences this result, as Rosselli
et al. (2006) suggest. When determining the
average of the three skills, the first two act as
a loop when calculating the speed. Thus, the
results are positive. Matute et al. (2013) clarify
that it is necessary to assess them separately to
avoid skewing the results.
Similarly, it has been shown that
metacomprehension performance at the
planning level is highly satisfactory. More than
80% of those evaluated were classified as
adequate or outstanding metareaders. The same
pattern is used in supervision and evaluation
processes, allowing us to conclude that the 32
participating students performed well in reading
awareness. Good performance is understood as
a quantifiable result.
Association of academic reading skills and the meta-comprehension process in rural students
40 Hansel Fernando Rodríguez Gómez
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e-ISSN: 2216-0116e-ISSN: 2216-0116 ISSN: 0120-4327ISSN: 0120-4327 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.unimarDOI: https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.unimar
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It’s important to reflect on the values that enable
students to understand their reading process,
given that the school aggregates scores based
on certain variables. In other words, when a
student’s profile is submitted, it is done so
globally. In this sense, all the secondary school
students who participated in the intervention are
readers with outstanding and adequate reading
awareness.
The students who were assessed exhibited
similar characteristics in their reading processes.
They followed directions, patterns, rules, and
models. Their sense of freedom (Freire, 2002)
is unclear. They do not yet possess the tools
that would lead them to genuine reading. Their
approach to developing reading awareness
enables them to take ownership of their learning
process and become aware of their reading
process. Reading appears to be developing in
an undirected manner. According to the results,
analysis, and evaluation, only one student in
the intervention group scored below 60 points
overall in the Escola classification system. High-
performing students demonstrate their reading
awareness through improved task planning,
monitoring, and personal assessment.
Finally, it is worth noting that the INA and
Escola provide pedagogical tools that facilitate
discussion and intervention when reading levels
below the 26th percentile or awareness levels
below 50 are identified. These tools determine
a child’s reading level and indicate when further
consideration is needed.
Including metacognition from early grades
could be a pedagogical strategy that helps
avoid disparities in some outcomes across
various assessed tasks. Tesouro (2005) argues
that incorporating metacognition into the
curriculum will encourage students to think for
themselves, instead of merely accumulating
knowledge. Examining the relationship between
metacomprehension and academic reading
comprehension skills alongside the results
of the educational institution’s internal and
external tests raises a new question, as these
results are unfavorable. Reading is a natural
and personal process, and awareness of one’s
reading process is also natural. As the subject
of a quantitative study, it partially validated the
correlation between the two processes.
Conflict of interest
This document does not present any conflicts of
interest related to personal, financial, political,
intellectual, racist, or religious matters that
could compromise its reliability.
Ethical Responsibilities
The Master’s Program in Education committee at
the Universidad de Caldas approved the Research
application protocol, which outlines the informed
consent process for the educational community,
including the education institution, parents, and
students. The protocol also explains the purpose
of the research, the procedure, the data to be
collected, and the right to withdraw from the
study at any time. It was also clarified that the
information would be used only for the study.
Sources of funding
The author declares that he has no financial
support for this work.
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Contribution
Hansel Rodríguez Gómez: Principal
Investigator. Statistical data processing, writing
of materials and methods, and obtaining results.
The author prepared, read, and approved the
manuscript.
