56
Internalization of gender stereotypes in
adolescent students: differences by sex,
age, grade and tastes
Jorge Eliécer Villarreal-Fernández1
Paola Andrea Durán-Quiceno2
Luis Vega Jaime3
To reference this article / Cómo citar este artículo / Para citar
este artigo: Villarreal-Fernández, J. E., Durán-Quiceno, P. A., & Vega-
Jaime, L. (2025). Internalization of gender stereotypes in adolescent
students: differences by sex, age, grade and tastes. Revista UNIMAR,
43(1), 56-74. https://doi.org/10.31948/ru.v43i1.4256
Reception date: June 21, 2024
Revision date: October 1, 2024
Approval date: November 29, 2024
Abstrac
This article examines gender stereotypes in adolescence, their influence on
identity formation and role internalization. It also contextualizes the problem
and analyzes its impact on the lives of adolescents. The objective of the study
focused on identifying and analyzing the gender stereotypes internalized by a
sample of adolescents, as well as exploring the factors related to their formation
and manifestation. A quantitative approach was used with a sample of 236
students between the ages of 11 and 16. The Gender Stereotyping Scale was
used to collect data on gender beliefs and perceptions. The results showed a high
internalization of gender stereotypes in the dimensions of affective expression
and social behavior, and a low internalization in aspects related to the body and
social responsibility. Significant differences were also observed between men
and women, with men more likely to reproduce stereotypical beliefs in most of
the dimensions analyzed. These findings underscore the need for educational
interventions that promote gender equality and reduce stereotypes. These
findings can guide the design of programs and policies aimed at reducing gender
stereotypes and promoting gender equality during adolescence.
Keywords: stereotypes; gender; adolescents; basic education; age; gender;
preferences
1 Institución Educativa Alfonso López Pumarejo. Member of the Centro de Investigación Escolar ALPUMA, Medellín, Antioquia, Colombia.
E-mail: jorgevf2005@gmail.com
2 Universidad Popular del Cesar. Member of the Grupo de Investigación en Enseñanza y Aprendizaje, Medellín, Antioquia, Colombia.
E-mail: mibellapao@gmail.com
3 Institución Educativa Miraflores, Medellín. E-mail: luisvegjaime@gmail.com
Article result oof the research entitled: La interiorización de estereotipos de género en estudiantes adolescentes en Antioquia,
developed during June 1st 2020 and that continues today, in Antioquia, departament of Colombia.
Revista Unimar Enero-Junio 2025
e-ISSN: 2216-0116 ISSN: 0120-4327 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.unimar
Rev. Unimar Vol. 43 No. 1 pp. 56-74
57
Interiorización de estereotipos de género en estudiantes
adolescentes: diferencias por sexo, edad, grado y gustos
Resumen
En este artículo, se examinaron los estereotipos de género en la adolescencia,
su influencia en la formación de identidades y la internalización de roles.
Además, se contextualizó la problemática y analizó su impacto en la vida de
los adolescentes. El objetivo del estudio se enfocó en identificar y analizar los
estereotipos de género internalizados por una muestra de adolescentes, así
como explorar los factores relacionados con su formación y manifestación. Se
empleó un enfoque cuantitativo con una muestra de 236 estudiantes, quienes
oscilaban entre los 11 y 16 años de edad. Se utilizó la escala de estereotipos
de género para recopilar datos sobre las creencias y percepciones de género.
Los resultados revelaron una alta interiorización de estereotipos de género en
las dimensiones de expresión afectiva y comportamiento social, y una baja
interiorización en aspectos relacionados con el cuerpo y la responsabilidad social.
También, se observaron diferencias significativas entre hombres y mujeres, con
una mayor tendencia en los hombres a reproducir creencias estereotipadas en la
mayoría de las dimensiones analizadas. Estos hallazgos subrayan la necesidad de
intervenciones educativas que promuevan la igualdad de género y reduzcan los
estereotipos. Estos resultados pueden guiar el diseño de programas y políticas
dirigidas a disminuir los estereotipos de género y fomentar la igualdad de género
en la adolescencia.
Palabras clave: estereotipos; género; adolescentes; educación básica; edad;
sexo; preferencias
Interiorização de estereótipos de gênero em alunos
adolescentes: diferenças por sexo, idade, série e
gostos
Resumo
Este artigo examina os estereótipos de gênero na adolescência, sua influência na
formação da identidade e na internalização de papéis. Ele também contextualizou
o problema e analisou seu impacto na vida dos adolescentes. O objetivo do
estudo concentrou-se em identificar e analisar os estereótipos de gênero
internalizados por uma amostra de adolescentes, bem como em explorar os
fatores relacionados à sua formação e manifestação. Foi utilizada uma abordagem
quantitativa com uma amostra de 236 alunos com idades entre 11 e 16 anos.
A Escala de Estereótipos de Gênero foi usada para coletar dados sobre crenças
e percepções de gênero. Os resultados mostraram uma alta internalização de
estereótipos de gênero nas dimensões de expressão afetiva e comportamento
social, e uma baixa internalização em aspectos relacionados ao corpo e à
responsabilidade social. Também foram observadas diferenças significativas
entre homens e mulheres, sendo que os homens têm maior probabilidade
Revista Unimar Enero-Junio 2025
e-ISSN: 2216-0116 ISSN: 0120-4327 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.unimar
Rev. Unimar Vol. 43 No. 1 pp. 56-74
Internalization of gender stereotypes in adolescent students: dierences by sex, age, grade and tastes
58
Jorge Eliécer Villarreal-Fernández
Paola Andrea Durán-Quiceno
Luis Vega Jaime
Revista Unimar Enero-Junio 2025
e-ISSN: 2216-0116 ISSN: 0120-4327 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.unimar
Rev. Unimar Vol. 43 No. 1 pp. 54-74
de reproduzir crenças estereotipadas na maioria das dimensões analisadas.
Esses resultados ressaltam a necessidade de intervenções educacionais que
promovam a igualdade de gênero e reduzam os estereótipos. Esses resultados
podem orientar a elaboração de programas e políticas destinados a reduzir os
estereótipos de gênero e promover a igualdade de gênero durante a adolescência.
Palavras-chave: estereótipos; gênero; adolescentes; educação básica; idade;
gênero; preferências
Introduction
Since the 1970s, the concept of ‘gender’ has
gained prominence in feminist theory, providing
a perspective that examines the relationship
between women and men beyond sexual
characteristics, questioning the inequalities
attributed to nature (García & Carbonell, 2023).
Feminism introduced the term gender to highlight
the role of practices, beliefs, representations,
and social norms that emerged in relation
to anatomical differences between men and
women (Risman, 2018). In this regard, Hincapié
(2015) referred to “gender as nothing more than
a persuasive staging, which in turn ignores the
character of the staging” (p. 35). On the other
hand, Butler (2004; 2006) defined gender as
the mechanism that produces and naturalizes
notions of masculinity and femininity, but can
also denaturalize them.
For their part, Villanueva-Blasco and Grau-
Alberola (2019) consider gender as a social
construct that is different from biological sex.
In this sense, gender role socialization, based
on inequalities, conveys androcentric messages
(Ferrer y Bosch, 2013), that reflect schematized
and sometimes derogatory social constructions.
In general, gender studies identify three key
phenomena: identity, stereotypes, and roles
(Lips & Lawson, 2019). Gender identity is the
association with a particular category; gender
stereotypes are beliefs about the characteristics
of men and women; and gender roles prescribe
standards based on masculinity or femininity
(Delgado et al., 2012; Tobin et al., 2010).
Gender stereotypes are evaluative psychological
constructs related to prejudice against groups
with less social power, such as women (Lips,
1993; Unger & Crawford, 1992). According to
Delgado et al. (2012), gender serves as a social
categorization system that assigns roles without
regard to actual biological characteristics.
Some examples include perceptions of male
aggressiveness and the caregiver role associated
with women (Martínez, 1996).
Del Valle et al. (2002) argue that stereotypes
are cultural manifestations that generalize about
the characteristics of men and women. Laird
and Thomson (1992), Lagarde (1998) y Jiménez
(2005) add that these stereotypes shape
cultural identity from childhood and influence
actions, thoughts and behaviors. Therefore, it
is relevant to analyze gender stereotypes in
education and understand their impact on the
formation of individual identity (Makarova et al.,
2019).
Ortega (1998) proposes a framework for
identifying gender stereotypes that includes
four aspects of identity that are reflected in
social representations; one of them is the body,
which ascribes distinctive qualities to men and
women; for example, representations in art and
the media internalize characteristics of strength
and delicacy, respectively, influencing the body
image of individuals (Ragonese et al. 2019;
Haines et al., 2016). According to Bourdieu
(2006), society constructs a sexualized and
differentiated reality based on biological aspects
of the body, which extends to areas such as
morality, where femininity implies the constant
control of the body and its expressions under
moral norms and the surveillance of modesty.
Internalization of gender stereotypes in adolescent students: dierences by sex, age, grade and tastes
59
Jorge Eliécer Villarreal-Fernández
Paola Andrea Durán-Quiceno
Luis Vega Jaime
Revista Unimar Enero-Junio 2025
e-ISSN: 2216-0116 ISSN: 0120-4327 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.unimar
Rev. Unimar Vol. 43 No. 1 pp. 56-74
Gender stereotypes also influence perceptions
of intellectual ability. Men are thought to be
better at technical, mechanical, and manual
tasks, while women are thought to be better
at organizational and cooperative skills. These
stereotypes have largely guided scientific
research on gender differences, leading to
conclusions that support the validity of these
stereotypes (Colás & Villaciervos 2007).
Another area in which gender stereotypes
are observed is the affective and emotional,
where greater emotionality and sensitivity
are attributed to the female gender and
greater emotional control to the male. In
addition, women are expected to have greater
communicative competence and men, to show
greater introspection and rationality, avoiding
personal and vital manifestations.
According to Blázquez (2012), deeply rooted
representations of masculinity and femininity
in the social imagination are key to formulating
hypotheses that guide research on gender.
Stereotypes function as sociocultural tools to
establish norms and shape individual identity.
The internalization of these gender differences
has important educational implications,
influencing the way people think, interpret, act,
and relate. Expected behaviors and evaluations
are influenced by stereotypical notions of
gender, reflecting gender-based expectations.
For Simón (2006), gender stereotypes in
schools affect adolescents. During adolescence,
girls often believe that their success depends
on their appearance and attractiveness rather
than on their intellectual or athletic abilities,
which leads them to choose less prestigious and
lower-paying careers. Boys, on the other hand,
follow a model of success based on strength
and athleticism, despite mediocre academic
performance in science and technology. This
perpetuates an androcentric approach that
affects women’s self-esteem and fosters
arrogance in men, making cooperation between
the sexes difficult.
During adolescence, gender stereotypes are
consolidated and influence young people’s
identity through the media (Rodríguez et al.,
2016; Ward & Grower, 2020), families (Hassan
et al., 2022; Navea-Martín, 2015; Otajonova
et al., 2022; Tenenbaum & Leaper, 2002) and
communities (Kågesten et al., 2016). For her
part, Zhao (2022) points to stereotypes in the
educational environment, such as textbooks,
language, behaviors, expectations, and attitudes
of parents, teachers, and peers. This affects
adolescents’ self-esteem, influences their
career decisions, shapes their self-evaluation
and identity, and may even contribute to the
dynamics of school violence (Pacheco-Salazar &
López-Yáñez, 2019).
Several factors contribute to adolescents’
internalization of gender stereotypes, which
influence their perceptions of male and female
roles. Therefore, it is important to identify these
stereotypes in any context in order to promote
significant changes. The selected studies share
a common theoretical approach and address
gender stereotypes, which allows them to be
compared with research findings.
In this sense, Colás and Villaciervos (2007)
found high percentages of internalization
of gender stereotypes in all the dimensions
studied. Although the differences in the
acceptance of these stereotypes between boys
and girls are not very pronounced, boys tend
to accept gender stereotypes more than girls.
In both cases, internalization is significant,
with subtle differences, with boys more likely
to maintain gender stereotypes than girls. In
addition, they observed that more than 35% of
adolescents accept gender stereotypes related
to the body. Half believe that social behaviors
are valued differently according to gender,
which influences their behavior. They also
accept differences in skills and abilities; girls
tend toward writing and caring for people and
boys toward technical and scientific careers,
which influences their career choices.
There is widespread acceptance of emotional
stereotypes. In terms of social responsibility,
20% of girls and 40% of boys accept stereotypes,
despite progress in integrating women into the
workforce and efforts to achieve equality in
domestic tasks
Internalization of gender stereotypes in adolescent students: dierences by sex, age, grade and tastes
60
Jorge Eliécer Villarreal-Fernández
Paola Andrea Durán-Quiceno
Luis Vega Jaime
Revista Unimar Enero-Junio 2025
e-ISSN: 2216-0116 ISSN: 0120-4327 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.unimar
Rev. Unimar Vol. 43 No. 1 pp. 54-74
On the other hand, according to the results of
Villanueva-Blasco and Grau-Alberola (2019),
there are significant differences in the adoption
of gender stereotypes according to sex and
age, especially during the transition to middle
adolescence. In general, males show a greater
tendency towards stereotypes compared to
females. In Compulsory Secondary Education
(CSE), gender stereotypes are more present in
males, especially in physical appearance, skills,
competencies and emotional aspects during
the fourth year. For females, these stereotypes
are more evident in the first year, moderately
affecting emotional aspects and, to a lesser
extent, social behavior. In addition, there is a
tendency for the acceptance of stereotypes to
decrease for women and increase for men.
In another study, García and Carbonell (2023)
expand the theoretical references with the
works of Colás and Villaciervos (2007), González
(2008), Martínez and De Sola (2003) y Pacheco
et al. (2014). These studies provide theoretical
and methodological support for the present
work. The results show a high incidence of
gender stereotypes among the participating
adolescents, with percentages close to or
greater than 50% in most areas, for both men
and women. However, males reproduce these
stereotypical beliefs more strongly than females
in all the dimensions analyzed.
In the study by Villarreal-Fernández and
Durán-Quiceno (2023), it was found that the
most internalized stereotype was that of social
behavior, followed by affective expression. The
dimensions of physical and social responsibility
were less internalized. There were no significant
differences between males and females by
age, but revealing differences in stereotypes
were observed according to school grades. In
summary, students acquire more stereotypes
about the behaviors expected of men and women
in society as they progress through school
grades, with men holding more stereotypical
beliefs than women.
The region where this study was conducted
was Medellín, Antioquia, Colombia, an area
that faces challenges related to gender equity
and the influence of roles and stereotypes in
the formation of adolescents. In this context, it
is particularly relevant to generate information
on how gender stereotypes are perceived and
adopted by young people, since this contributes
to understanding and addressing the barriers
that limit equal development in this crucial
stage. Therefore, this study responds to
the need to obtain data that will allow local
educational institutions to design policies
and strategies to promote greater gender
equality and support the achievement of the
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs), which promote gender equality as a
fundamental element of social development.
In summary, adolescence is a key period of
change and development during which gender
stereotypes are consolidated under the influence
of the media, family, and community. These
stereotypes influence adolescents’ identity
formation and social expectations. Studies show
a high internalization of these stereotypes,
which vary by gender. Therefore, it is crucial to
address them in educational and social contexts
so as to promote equality and eliminate gender
barriers. Identifying and understanding how
these stereotypes are perpetuated will help
to develop effective educational strategies
that promote gender equality and the healthy
development of adolescents.
Methodology
Nature and design of the research
The reasoning used in this research was
deductive because the categories used are part
of the accumulated knowledge. In addition,
“deduction makes it possible to establish a link
between theory and observation and to deduce
from the theory the phenomena observed”
(Dávila, 2006, p. 181). In this sense, the present
work adopted a deductive approach, since
hypotheses were formulated from the theory,
which were contrasted with observations
(Bericat, 1998). Specifically, the study was
analytical, observational (not experimental),
descriptive-correlational in scope, without
carrying out an intervention process (Lozares &
López, 1991). Therefore, since the phenomenon
was not monitored over time, nor were changes
Internalization of gender stereotypes in adolescent students: dierences by sex, age, grade and tastes
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Jorge Eliécer Villarreal-Fernández
Paola Andrea Durán-Quiceno
Luis Vega Jaime
Revista Unimar Enero-Junio 2025
e-ISSN: 2216-0116 ISSN: 0120-4327 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.unimar
Rev. Unimar Vol. 43 No. 1 pp. 56-74
over time analyzed in the same group, the
design was cross-sectional (Hernández-Ávila et
al., 2000).
Population and sample
The study included 236 students from a public
educational institution in the municipality of
Medellín, Antioquia. The sampling procedure was
convenience (not random) and corresponded
to all students in the identified grades whose
parents accepted and signed the informed
consent.
Sample distribution
The sample consisted of 236 students in the
sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. Of these,
111 (47%) were female and 125 (53%) were
male. The sample of students had a mean age
of 13.2 years, with an age range of 11 to 16
years. The coefficient of variation in age was
approximately 11.89%, indicating moderate
variability in the age of the participants. This
represents a wide distribution of students at
different stages of early adolescence, providing
a varied perspective in the analysis of the data
obtained from the questionnaire.
Data collection techniques and instruments
Students participated voluntarily in the data
collection, with the informed consent of their
parents or guardians, as well as the consent
of each participant. The data collection
sessions took place in the classroom, during
school hours, with the presence of the
authors to provide support in the use of the
questionnaire. Before starting, the aim of the
study and the importance of their cooperation
were explained. The administration of the
instrument took between ten and twenty
minutes and was carried out in an atmosphere
of trust, allowing the students to clarify any
doubts that might arise.
For the data collection, the Gender Stereotypes
Scale developed by Colás and Villaciervos (2007)
was used, which evaluates six fundamental
dimensions obtained through a combination
of theoretical review and contributions from
previous studies, namely:
1. Body (3 items: 1-3): assesses perceptions of
physical attractiveness and body grooming
as gender-related aspects.
Example: «Women should care more than
men about their appearance and beauty».
2. Social Behavior (SB) (2 items: 4-5): analyzes
the attitudes expected of people in external
situations according to gender.
Example: «Discreet, prudent, and modest
behavior is more valued in women».
3. Skills and Abilities (SA) (6 items: 6-11):
Measures beliefs about the skills and abilities
associated with each gender.
Example: «Men are more capable than women
of performing technical and mechanical
tasks».
4. Emotional Management (EM) (4 items: 12-
15): examines an individual’s emotional
response to various situations, considering
gender stereotypes.
Example: «It’s ridiculous for men to cry or
express their feelings in public».
5. Affective Expression (AE) (5 items: 16-20):
Observes how people of each gender are
expected to express their affection.
Example: «Women can hug or kiss their
friends to show affection, but men cannot».
6. Social Responsibility (SR) (2 items: 21-22):
Assesses gender roles in terms of the social
responsibility attributed to each gender.
Example: «Women should take care of the
house and their children».
The Gender Stereotypes Scale uses a series of
dichotomous response categories (Yes or No)
Internalization of gender stereotypes in adolescent students: dierences by sex, age, grade and tastes
62
Jorge Eliécer Villarreal-Fernández
Paola Andrea Durán-Quiceno
Luis Vega Jaime
Revista Unimar Enero-Junio 2025
e-ISSN: 2216-0116 ISSN: 0120-4327 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.unimar
Rev. Unimar Vol. 43 No. 1 pp. 54-74
to determine the presence or absence of each
statement in students.
The reliability of the instrument as a whole
(original application) was determined by
Cronbach’s alpha, the result of which was
adequate (α=.7805).
The internal consistency of the instrument for
this application was calculated with Cronbach’s
alpha (α=0,795, IC=0,755-0,830) and McDonald’s
omega (Ω=.799, IC=0,762-0,836), since these
are values (α, Ω e IC) accepted as valid (Oviedo
and Campo-Arias, 2005) and at a better level
than the values of the questionnaire at the time
of its design. These calculations were carried
out using the JASP software.
In addition to the scale, demographic data
such as age, gender, and school level were
collected from the participants in order to
analyze significant differences and correlations.
To assess interests and preferences in various
activities (Internet, sports, reading, math,
and video games), the questionnaire included
direct questions in a frequency scale format.
Each student was asked to indicate whether he
or she liked or disliked each specific activity.
These questions were designed to identify
possible gender differences in preferences
based on activities commonly associated with
stereotypical gender roles.
Data Analysis Techniques
Data analysis was performed first in Excel
and then in JASP software for organizing the
database and applying reliability, normality, and
frequency statistics. SPSS 27 was then used
for comparisons of means, effect sizes, and
descriptive and correlational studies.
First, the reliability of the instrument was
assessed using Cronbach’s alpha (α) and
McDonald’s omega (ω), indices with their
respective confidence intervals (CI), due to the
precision of ω when working with factor loadings
(Ventura-León & Caycho-Rodríguez, 2017).
For descriptive analysis, the mean of each
dimension was considered. The distribution
of the variables was evaluated with the
Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistic for samples with
more than 50 subjects, considering p > 0,05 as
an indication of normality. The general mean,
standard deviation, minimum and maximum
values were calculated.
In the relational phase, means were compared
using the Mann-Whitney U test for two samples
and Kruskal-Wallis for more than two samples,
with p < 0,05 as the significance criterion. Kruskal-
Wallis and Dunn tests were used to assess
general and specific differences, respectively, in
addition to effect size and biserial correlation by
ranks for the Mann-Whitney U test.
To analyze the correlations between age, grade,
and gender stereotypes, the Spearman Rho
coefficient was used in the correlational study,
and the point biserial coefficient was used for
the gender variable. This test was also used
to examine the correlations between students’
interests (reading, math, sports, video games,
and the Internet) and gender stereotypes, using
p < 0,05 as the criterion of significance. The
strength of the correlation was determined
according to the following scale of absolute
values: strong (0.5-1), moderate (0.3-0.49),
and weak (<0.29), bearing in mind whether the
correlation was positive or negative.
Results
Descriptive study
The distribution of the data for the variable
gender stereotypes and its dimensions (body,
social behavior, skills and abilities, emotions,
affective expression, social responsibility) was
determined using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test
in SPSS 27, with a result of p < 0.001 for all
dimensions. This indicates the absence of a
normal distribution and the need to use analyses
with non-parametric statistics.
Table 1. shows the results of the descriptive
study for n = 236. The highest mean was
observed in the dimension Affective Expression
(SD = 1.26), followed by Social Behavior (SD =
0.71). The lowest means correspond to Body (SD
Internalization of gender stereotypes in adolescent students: dierences by sex, age, grade and tastes
63
Jorge Eliécer Villarreal-Fernández
Paola Andrea Durán-Quiceno
Luis Vega Jaime
Revista Unimar Enero-Junio 2025
e-ISSN: 2216-0116 ISSN: 0120-4327 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.unimar
Rev. Unimar Vol. 43 No. 1 pp. 56-74
= 1.07) and Social Responsibility (SD = 0.83). The total score of the gender stereotypes measure
shows a mean close to but below the median, with a small dispersion (SD = 4.48) with respect to
the mean. In general, 55% of the adolescents in the sample internalize gender stereotypes. This is
also reflected in the different dimensions of the construct, with the exception of body, with 38%,
and social responsibility, with 49% of the participating students.
The table also includes the value of the median of the gender stereotypes and their dimensions,
which is important because the distribution is not normal. In addition, normality tests were carried
out for each variable, differentiating by grade, gender and age, and none of them showed a normal
distribution.
Table 1
General descriptive analysis of the results of the application of the Gender Stereotypes Scaler
Variable Maximum
possible
score
Mean SD CI Weighted
mean
Median
LL UL
Body 3 1,13 1,07 0.99 1,27 0,38 1,00
Social behavior 2 1,25 0,71 1,16 1,35 0,63 1,00
Competencies
and abilities 6 3,31 1,88 3,06 3,55 0,55 4,00
Emotions 4 2,20 0,89 2.09 2,32 0,55 2,00
Aective
expression 5 3,38 1,26 3,22 3,54 0,68 4,00
Social
responsibility 2 0,98 0,83 0,87 1,08 0,49 1,00
Gender
stereotypes 22 12,25 4,48 11,68 12,82 0,55 13,00
Note. CI = confidence interval; LL = lower limit; UL = upper limit.
Each item on the scale corresponds to a stereotype that may or may not have been internalized
by the adolescents, which was then analyzed (see Table 2). The frequency indicates how many
times each item was answered ‘yes’, i.e., when the stereotype was present, and also indicates the
percentage of that response.
In the Body dimension, stereotypes generally had the lowest level of internalization, although
almost 50% of the participants believed that women should pay more attention to their appearance
than men.
Regarding Social Behavior, there was a high presence of gender stereotypes in the sample,
highlighting that more than two-thirds of students value that women have modest, prudent and
discreet behavior.
Stereotypes about competence and ability were mostly internalized, all above 50%, except for the
belief that men are better at technical and mechanical tasks, which was strongly internalized by
almost 70% of the participants.
Internalization of gender stereotypes in adolescent students: dierences by sex, age, grade and tastes
64
Jorge Eliécer Villarreal-Fernández
Paola Andrea Durán-Quiceno
Luis Vega Jaime
Revista Unimar Enero-Junio 2025
e-ISSN: 2216-0116 ISSN: 0120-4327 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.unimar
Rev. Unimar Vol. 43 No. 1 pp. 54-74
In terms of emotions, participants were in an intermediate position in terms of internalizing gender
stereotypes, highlighting the normalization of girls crying when they feel hurt, even though it is
perceived as acceptable for men to cry or express emotions in public.
The dimension ‘Affective expression’ showed the highest level of internalization of gender
stereotypes, with almost 50% of the participants believing that demonstrations of affection with
hugs and kisses are not exclusively reserved for women, and more than 80% believing in the
ability of women to comfort others when they are sad.
Table 2
Frequency and percentage of positive response for each item on the scale
Dimension Item Frequency Percentage (%)
Body
1 86 36,4
2 83 35,2
3 98 41,5
Social behavior 4 135 57,2
5 161 68,2
Competencies and abilities
6 90 38,1
7 120 50,8
8 147 62,3
9 118 50,0
10 143 60,6
11 162 68,6
Emotions
12 29 12,3
13 196 83,1
14 151 64,0
15 144 61,0
Aective expression
16 114 48,3
17 128 54,2
18 191 80,9
19 185 78,4
20 179 75,8
Social responsibility 21 103 43,6
22 128 54,2
The results of gender stereotypes and their dimensions, differentiated by gender, age and grade
of the students, are presented in percentages (see Table 3).
Internalization of gender stereotypes in adolescent students: dierences by sex, age, grade and tastes
65
Jorge Eliécer Villarreal-Fernández
Paola Andrea Durán-Quiceno
Luis Vega Jaime
Revista Unimar Enero-Junio 2025
e-ISSN: 2216-0116 ISSN: 0120-4327 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.unimar
Rev. Unimar Vol. 43 No. 1 pp. 56-74
Table 3
Porcentaje de estereotipos de género por sexo, edad y grado
Gender
stereotypes
Gender (%) Age (%) Grade (%)
Male Female 11 12 13 14 15 16 6° 7° 8°
Social
responsibility 55,2 41,9 59,1 53,3 55,1 38,5 48,0 44,8 55,7 49,1 40,9
Aective
expression 70,7 64,0 70,9 67,2 67,5 65,2 71,2 69,5 76,0 62,3 67,0
Emotions 57,0 52,9 56,8 55,8 55,1 54,9 49,0 60,5 57,2 52,6 57,1
Competencies
and abilities 59,7 49,9 69,7 53,0 53,4 50,3 65,3 60,5 67,4 47,8 53,6
Social behavior 64,8 60,4 68,2 63,1 59,3 64,8 70,0 52,7 70,7 60,4 57,5
Body 38,4 36,9 24,2 27,9 40,7 39,3 46,7 50,9 33,8 37,4 42,8
General 58,9 52,1 60,3 54,2 55,9 53,3 60,0 59,1 62,1 51,8 55,0
With regard to gender, both in the overall results and in each of the dimensions, men were found
to have internalized stereotypes more than women. Specifically, the difference was more than
thirteen percentage points in Social Responsibility and about ten points in Skills and Abilities. On
the other hand, the difference in the Body dimension was minimal, a little more than one point; the
scores were almost equal for men and women.
Regarding age, there was generally more internalization at age eleven and less at age fourteen,
with no clear upward or downward trend. It was interesting to observe the behavior in the ‘Body’
dimension, where internalization was lower at eleven years of age and increased at later ages, being
highest between fifteen and sixteen years of age. This suggests that there are more stereotypes
about women’s bodies at older ages. The other dimensions did not show a clear trend in the
different age groups studied.
Students’ grade level provided insight into the effect of classroom context on gender stereotypes.
Only for the dimension ‘Social responsibility’ was a trend observed in which the internalization
of the stereotype decreased with increasing grade level, similar to what happens with age. In
the latter case, however, there were increases at some ages. For all dimensions except ‘Body’,
stereotypes were higher in the sixth grade.
Students were also asked about their interests by topic, which allowed us to identify differences
between men and women, some of which are the result of beliefs about the roles each sex should
play. Table 4 shows the results of the differences in interest between males and females in specific
activities, reflecting patterns according to gender stereotypes; for example, males expressed
greater interest in sports, mathematics, and video games, while reading was the only activity with
greater female participation, in line with the roles traditionally associated with each gender.
Internalization of gender stereotypes in adolescent students: dierences by sex, age, grade and tastes
66
Jorge Eliécer Villarreal-Fernández
Paola Andrea Durán-Quiceno
Luis Vega Jaime
Revista Unimar Enero-Junio 2025
e-ISSN: 2216-0116 ISSN: 0120-4327 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.unimar
Rev. Unimar Vol. 43 No. 1 pp. 54-74
Table 4
Mean interest in specific activities by gender
Internet % Sports % Reading % Mathematics % Videogames %
Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female
80 78 93 87 49 72 80 75 90 52
Relational study
Comparison of results
This phase began with the comparison of the results between the different variables and the
subgroups in each of them (see Table 5); however, only the results that showed significant
differences are presented; the significant p is found in Table 5. In addition, the effect size of these
variations was calculated, that is, the size of the difference observed.
Table 5
Comparación de resultados por grupos y tamaño del efecto
Group Stereotype pEect size Comparison
subgroup p
Gender
Competencies and
abilities 0,012 0,188 M > F 0,006
Aective expression 0,028 0,161 M > F 0,014
Social behavior 0,015 0,174 M > F 0,007
General 0,012 0,189 M > F 0,006
Age
Body 0,037 0,046
11 < 15 0,025
11 < 16 0,018
12 < 13 0,026
12 < 14 0,042
12 < 15 0,009
12 < 16 0,006
Social behavior Not signicant 0,015 15 > 16 0,050
Competencies and
abilities Not signicant 0,032
11 > 12 0,041
11 > 14 0,026
15 > 12 0,042
15 > 14 0,023
Social behavior Not signicant 0,029 12 > 14 0,024
13 > 14 0,014
Internalization of gender stereotypes in adolescent students: dierences by sex, age, grade and tastes
67
Jorge Eliécer Villarreal-Fernández
Paola Andrea Durán-Quiceno
Luis Vega Jaime
Revista Unimar Enero-Junio 2025
e-ISSN: 2216-0116 ISSN: 0120-4327 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.unimar
Rev. Unimar Vol. 43 No. 1 pp. 56-74
Group Stereotype pEect size Comparison
subgroup p
Grade
Social behavior Not signicant 0,023 6 > 7 0,048
6 > 8 0,021
Competencies and
abilities 0,001 0,071 6 > 7 0,001
6 > 8 0,008
Aective expression 0,002 0,053 6 > 7 0,001
6 > 8 0,028
Social behavior Not signicant 0,018 6 > 8 0,020
General 0,007 0,047 6 > 7 0,001
0,031
Table 5, shows that there were significant differences in the internalization of gender stereotypes,
mainly in the dimensions of ‘Competencies and Abilities’, ‘Affective Expressions’, and ‘Social
Responsibility’, with a tendency to be greater for men than for women, and with an effect size
between small and medium (Domínguez-Lara, 2018).
With respect to age, there were significant differences in the Body dimension and in certain
subgroups. For Social Behavior, Competencies and Abilities, and Social Responsibility, the overall
score did not differ significantly, but it did in certain groups. Similarly, in some dimensions, such
as Behavior and Social Responsibility, there were no significant overall differences, but there were
differences in subgroups. Competencies and Abilities, Affective Expressions, and General Score
showed significant differences, although the effect size was small. A tendency towards greater
internalization of gender stereotypes with age was observed.
On the other hand, sixth graders showed a greater internalization of gender stereotypes.
Regarding preferences, there were significant differences in the preference for reading (p <
0.001), which was more pronounced in females, and the preference for video games (p < 0.001),
which was more pronounced in males.
Correlations between variables
The correlation between the socio-demographic and taste variables of the students with gender
stereotypes and their dimensions is presented in Table 6, with the most significant results (p >
0.05).
Table 6
Correlations between the different study variables
Gender
stereotypes Variables Grade Gender Age Sports Videogames
Body Correlation 0,207
p0,001
Social behavior Correlation - 0,136
p0,037
Internalization of gender stereotypes in adolescent students: dierences by sex, age, grade and tastes
68
Jorge Eliécer Villarreal-Fernández
Paola Andrea Durán-Quiceno
Luis Vega Jaime
Revista Unimar Enero-Junio 2025
e-ISSN: 2216-0116 ISSN: 0120-4327 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.unimar
Rev. Unimar Vol. 43 No. 1 pp. 54-74
Competencies and
abilities
Correlation - 0,171 - 0,158
p0,008 0,015
Emotions Correlation 0,188
p0,004
Aective expression Correlation - 0,139 - 0,134
p0,033 0,040
Social behavior Correlación - 0,133 - 0,161 0,134
p0,041 0,013 0,040
General Correlation - 0,133 - 0,167
0,041 0,010
As can be seen in Table 6, there were significant, weak and negative correlations between
school grade and the internalization of gender stereotypes in dimensions such as social behavior,
competencies and abilities, affective expression, social responsibility and in the total score of
the questionnaire. This suggests that as school grade increases, the internalization of gender
stereotypes decreases in these dimensions and in general.
As for gender, a negative correlation was found, indicating that in these dimensions and in the total
score, the internalization of stereotypes was lower in women than in men, although the strength
of the correlation was weak. On the other hand, the correlation with age shows a higher level than
the previous ones, indicating that the internalization of body stereotypes increases with age.
In addition, the activities preferred by the students and their relationship with gender roles were
studied, finding weak correlations that suggest that those people who like sports have higher
levels of internalization of emotion stereotypes, and those who like video games have the same
levels, but in the dimension of social responsibility.
Discussion
The results of the research show that the participating students have a high level of internalization
of gender stereotypes. This characteristic is similar to that found in other research, such as Colás
and Villaciervos (2007), García and Carbonell (2023), Villanueva-Blasco and Grau-Alberola (2019),
Villarreal-Fernández and Durán-Quiceno (2023), where internalized beliefs above this percentage
were evident. Despite the temporal differences between the oldest and most recent studies, the
persistence of these levels is worrying, although the location of each study must be considered.
These high levels of internalization of stereotypes can lead to difficulties in identifying their interests
and respecting the rights of students.
The greatest internalization of stereotypes is found in the dimensions of Affective Expression and
Social Behavior. This shows that it is still believed that women are the ones who should express
love and affection more, while differences persist in the way men and women behave socially.
These results are in line with the work of Villarreal-Fernández and Durán-Quiceno (2023), who
conducted their research in an educational institution in the same department, but in a different
municipality; that is, the culture, in terms of beliefs regarding the role of men and women, is
common. The same happens with the less internalized stereotypes, such as the body and social
responsibility, obtaining similar results in both studies.
Internalization of gender stereotypes in adolescent students: dierences by sex, age, grade and tastes
69
Jorge Eliécer Villarreal-Fernández
Paola Andrea Durán-Quiceno
Luis Vega Jaime
Revista Unimar Enero-Junio 2025
e-ISSN: 2216-0116 ISSN: 0120-4327 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.unimar
Rev. Unimar Vol. 43 No. 1 pp. 56-74
Seeing the tastes of adolescents, such as some of
the activities they do, allows us to introduce new
variables that are consistent with what has been
found in other research. At the same time, it allows
us to identify possible causes or consequences
of the internalization of stereotypes. In this
case, it is observed that masculine preferences
prevail in sports, Internet use, mathematics and
video games, and feminine preferences prevail
in reading, thus confirming socially internalized
gender stereotypes. The results allow us to
observe that emotional stereotypes are more
internalized with the taste for sports, and social
responsibility with the taste for video games.
There were significant differences in the
internalization of stereotypes in the general
result regarding the gender of the participants.
These results are different from those obtained
by Villarreal-Fernández and Durán-Quiceno
(2023), but they are similar to other works in
which these differences were significant (Colás
& Villaciervos, 2007; Villanueva-Blasco & Grau-
Alberola, 2019). In addition, it was observed
that the significance of the differences was
presented between gender and the dimensions of
competencies and abilities, affective expression
and social responsibility.
The correlational study became a contribution to
the understanding of the subject, since it allowed
to identify how the internalization of stereotypes
increases or decreases in relation to other
variables. This leads to educational activities
that, in some way, influence these beliefs. On
the other hand, there was a negative correlation
between stereotypes and school grade; the
higher the grade, the fewer stereotypes in
general and greater internalization in men. The
grade in which the student is found negatively
correlates social behavior, skills and abilities,
affective expression, social responsibility and
stereotypes in general, corroborating what was
outlined by Zhao (2022), in the approach to the
effect that the educational environment can
have, in this case, the peers with whom he or
she studies.
In terms of specific dimensions, it is evident
that school-aged adolescents show a significant
tendency to internalize gender stereotypes
related to physical appearance, social
interactions, occupational skills and abilities, and
gender roles in the family environment. These
findings are consistent with previous research
highlighting the powerful influence of media,
family, and society in the construction of gender
stereotypes during adolescence (Kågesten et
al., 2016; Tenenbaum & Leaper, 2002; Ward &
Grower, 2020; Zhao, 2022).
Conclusions
The research shows that gender stereotypes
are deeply internalized by the adolescents in
the sample, consistent with previous studies
that highlight the influence of these stereotypes
on individual perceptions and behaviors.
In particular, the Affective Expression and Social
Behavior dimensions showed the highest levels
of internalization, suggesting that specific roles
and behaviors are assigned to each gender
in terms of emotion and social behavior. This
reinforces the idea that men are expected to
be emotionally strong and women, to be more
empathetic and sociable.
Although the Body dimension showed lower
levels of internalization, it is concerning that
nearly 50% of participants believe that women
should take more care of their appearance than
men. This reflects the persistence of beauty
and body image stereotypes, which may have
implications for self-esteem and mental health.
On the other hand, there are significant
differences between men and women in the
internalization of gender stereotypes. Men
showed higher levels in general as well as in
specific dimensions such as competence,
affective expression, and social responsibility.
These findings are consistent with the theory of
gender socialization, which postulates that men
are raised to be independent and achievement-
oriented, while women are educated to be
emotional and relationship-oriented.
Furthermore, the internalization of body
stereotypes increases with age, possibly due
to the greater influence of media and social
pressures during adolescence. However, no
Internalization of gender stereotypes in adolescent students: dierences by sex, age, grade and tastes
70
Jorge Eliécer Villarreal-Fernández
Paola Andrea Durán-Quiceno
Luis Vega Jaime
Revista Unimar Enero-Junio 2025
e-ISSN: 2216-0116 ISSN: 0120-4327 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.unimar
Rev. Unimar Vol. 43 No. 1 pp. 54-74
clear trend was observed in other dimensions,
suggesting that stereotype internalization may
occur at different stages of development.
In terms of grade level, sixth graders showed
greater internalization of stereotypes than eighth
graders, suggesting a greater vulnerability in the
early years of adolescence when young people
are constructing their gender identity.
These findings highlight the importance of
implementing educational policies that promote
gender equality and reduce the perpetuation
of stereotypes in the school environment. In
order to make progress towards achieving the
UN Sustainable Development Goals, particularly
SDG 5 on gender equality, it is recommended
that educational institutions in the region adopt
awareness-raising and training programs for
both students and teachers. These programs
should address the impact of gender stereotypes
on identity construction and their long-term
effects on academic and career choices.
Educational institutions are encouraged to
promote spaces for reflection and analysis of
gender roles in order to reduce discriminatory
attitudes and provide an inclusive environment.
In addition, the commitment of institutions is
crucial in designing intervention strategies that
strengthen a just and equitable vision in future
generations, contributing to a society that values
the diversity of skills and talents, regardless of
gender.
For future research, it is suggested to increase
the sample size to obtain more representative
and generalizable results; to examine the
impact of educational interventions designed
to challenge gender stereotypes and promote
equality; to explore the influence of cultural,
religious and socio-economic factors on
gender stereotypes; to conduct longitudinal
studies to assess the long-term effects of
attitudes and perceptions related to gender
stereotypes; to examine the relationship
between gender stereotypes and academic
achievement, including career choices and
performance, compare gender attitudes in
different educational contexts, such as public
and private schools, rural and urban schools,
and across countries; and complement
quantitative research with qualitative
approaches, for instance in-depth interviews
and focus groups, in order to gain a more
detailed and contextualized understanding
of experiences and beliefs related to gender
stereotypes, as these qualitative approaches
would enrich the understanding of gender
stereotypes and provide more comprehensive
perspectives to inform future educational
interventions and policies.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that no personal interests
or interests beyond their control, including
misconduct or values other than those usual
and ethical in research, were involved in the
conduct of the work or the writing of the article.
Ethical Responsibilities
This study respected the ethical standards
established by the Declaration of Helsinki and
Law 1581 of 2012, which establishes general
provisions for the protection of personal data
in Colombia, including the voluntary nature of
participation, the free and informed consent for
the use of data collected for research purposes,
and the indication that participants could
stop participating at any time. Therefore, the
confidentiality of the participants was respected
in the processing of the data, and the guardians
were asked to sign the informed consent and
assent of each participating student.
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Internalization of gender stereotypes in adolescent students: dierences by sex, age, grade and tastes
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Jorge Eliécer Villarreal-Fernández
Paola Andrea Durán-Quiceno
Luis Vega Jaime
Revista Unimar Enero-Junio 2025
e-ISSN: 2216-0116 ISSN: 0120-4327 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.unimar
Rev. Unimar Vol. 43 No. 1 pp. 54-74
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Contribution
Jorge Eliécer Villarreal-Fernández: Principal investigator. Statistical data processing, writing
of the materials and methods and acquisition of the results.
Paola Andrea Durán-Quiceno: analysis and interpretation of results, search for background
information, drafting of the introduction, methods, discussion and conclusions.
Luís Vega Jaime: analysis and interpretation of the results, drafting of the introduction, methods,
discussion and conclusions, editing.
All authors participated in the drafting of the manuscript, read and approved it.
