91
Revista Criterios - 28 (2) julio - diciembre 2021 Rev. Criterios - pp. 91-110
ISSN: 0121-8670, ISSN Electrónico: 2256-1161,
https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.criterios
Universidad Mariana, San Juan de Pasto, Nariño, Colombia.
Impacto de factores socioeconómicos en la nutrición de niños
entre 2,5 a 5 años en la ciudad de Pasto, Colombia
Gloria Córdoba
John Fuertez
Jonier Martínez
Impacto de factores socioeconómicos en la
nutrición de niños entre 2,5 a 5 años en la
ciudad de Pasto, Colombia
Gloria Córdoba
1
John Fuertez
2
Jonier Martínez
3
Cómo citar este artículo / To reference this article / Para citar
este artigo: Córdoba, G., Fuertez, J. y Martínez, J. (2021). Impacto
de factores socioeconómicos en la nutrición de niños entre 2,5 a 5
años en la ciudad de Pasto, Colombia. Revista Criterios, 28(2), 91-
110. https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.criterios/28.2-art6
Fecha de recepción: 22/11/2020
Fecha de revisión: 05/02/2021
Fecha de aprobación: 14/05/2021
Resumen
Considerando que la seguridad alimentaria es de gran preocupación
para la seguridad nutricional y la salud humana, se identicó factores
claves en el acceso físico, social y económico de la alimentación en
hogares con niños de 2,5 a 5 años; se evaluó factores como: ingreso,
consumo, costos de los productos, accesibilidad y nivel de educación;
adicionalmente, se consideró los efectos y algunos aspectos para mejorar
el acceso de alimentos. La información se recopiló mediante encuestas
distribuidas a padres y cuidadores en la ciudad de Pasto, Colombia. El
programa ‘Soluciones de Productos y Servicios Estadísticos’ se utilizó
para el análisis estadístico y el desarrollo descriptivo. Aunque los ingresos
estuvieron condicionados al salario mínimo, no se encontró desnutrición.
Entre las estrategias para mejorar la seguridad alimentaria, una oferta
sostenible de alimentos y un mejor acceso a su consumo deben ser
garantizados. Se refuerza la promoción de la educación para la población
más vulnerable.
Palabras clave: Accesibilidad; Colombia; ingresos; nutrición; salud
infantil; seguridad alimentaria.
Este artículo es el resultado de la investigación titulada: Caracterización de la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional de los hogares
urbanos de niños y niñas entre 2.5 a 5 años de la ciudad de Pasto, desarrollada desde el 13 de septiembre de 2016 hasta el 31 de julio
de 2019 en la ciudad de Pasto, departamento de Nariño, Colombia.
1
Magíster en Gestión de la Tecnología Educativa. Pasto, Nariño, Colombia. E-mail: gcordobarodriguez@yahoo.com
2
Doctor en Ingeniería Química, Bioprocesos y Flujos Reactivos, Facultad de Minas, Universidad Nacional de Colombia sede Medellín,
Colombia. E-mail: jmfuerte@unal.edu.co
3
Estadístico. Secretaría de Salud, Alcaldía Municipal sede Anganoy, Los Rosales, Pasto, Nariño, Colombia. E-mail: joniermartinez@
gmail.com
92
Revista Criterios - 28 (2) julio - diciembre 2021 Rev. Criterios - pp. 91-110
ISSN: 0121-8670, ISSN Electrónico: 2256-1161,
https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.criterios
Universidad Mariana, San Juan de Pasto, Nariño, Colombia.
Impacto de factores socioeconómicos en la nutrición de niños
entre 2,5 a 5 años en la ciudad de Pasto, Colombia
Gloria Córdoba
John Fuertez
Jonier Martínez
Impact of the socioeconomic factors on the
nourishment of children between 2.5 and 5
years of age in San Juan de Pasto, Colombia
Abstract
Without a doubt, food security is of great concern to nutritional security and
human health. In the physical, social and economic access to food in households
with children from 2.5 to 5 years old, key factors were identied and evaluated
such as: income, consumption, product costs, accessibility, and level of education;
additionally, the eects and some aspects to improve food access were considered.
The information was collected through surveys distributed to parents and caregivers
in the city of Pasto, Colombia. The ‘Statistical Products and Services Solutions’
program was used for statistical analysis and descriptive development. Although
income was conditional on the minimum wage, no malnutrition was found. Among
the strategies to improve food security, a sustainable supply of food and better
access to its consumption must be guaranteed. To conclude, the promotion of
education for the most vulnerable population is reinforced.
Keywords: Accessibility; Colombia; income; nutrition; children health; food
security.
Impacto de fatores socioeconômicos na
nutrição de crianças de 2,5 a 5 anos em
Pasto, Colômbia
Resumo
Considerando que a segurança alimentar é uma grande preocupação para a
segurança nutricional e saúde humana, foram identicados fatores-chave no
acesso físico, social e econômico aos alimentos em domicílios com crianças de 2,5
a 5 anos. Os fatores: renda, consumo, custo do produto, acessibilidade e nível de
escolaridade foram avaliados. Efeitos e alguns aspectos para melhorar o acesso
aos alimentos foram concebidos. As informações foram coletadas por meio de
pesquisas distribuídas a pais e responsáveis na cidade de Pasto, na Colômbia. O
programa ‘Soluções de Produtos e Serviços Estatísticos’ foi utilizado para análise
estatística e desenvolvimento descritivo. Embora a renda fosse condicionada a um
salário-mínimo, não foi encontrada desnutrição. Entre as estratégias para melhorar
a segurança alimentar, deve-se garantir o abastecimento sustentável de alimentos
e um melhor acesso ao seu consumo. A promoção da educação para a população
mais vulnerável é reforçada.
Palavras-chave: Acessibilidade; Colômbia; renda; nutrição; saúde da criança;
segurança alimentar.
93
Revista Criterios - 28 (2) julio - diciembre 2021 Rev. Criterios - pp. 91-110
ISSN: 0121-8670, ISSN Electrónico: 2256-1161,
https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.criterios
Universidad Mariana, San Juan de Pasto, Nariño, Colombia.
Impacto de factores socioeconómicos en la nutrición de niños
entre 2,5 a 5 años en la ciudad de Pasto, Colombia
Gloria Córdoba
John Fuertez
Jonier Martínez
1. Introduction
As living beings, food and nutrients are
needed to conduct daily activities and to
survive. However, malnutrition and the lack of
micronutrients can be an obstacle that avoids
people actively participate in the modern society
(Oh and Hong, 2003). This situation makes a
severe damage to a signicant percentage of
the population and aects the economic and
social development of countries, as well as
their role in the global economy (Oh and Hong,
2003; Organización de las Naciones Unidas
para la Alimentación y la Agricultura, FAO,
2013). A food crisis worldwide was observed
between 2006 and 2009; it was characterized
by two stages: the rst one (2006-2008) took
place due to the rising of the international
prices of commodities (food and non-food).
The second one (2008-2009) was caused by
the economic and nancial crises. The actual
income of families has been aected by these
stages, reducing the food access and other
basic goods, and therefore leading to increase
poverty and hungry. These events, reinforced
by natural factors (i.e., weather change
and natural disasters), have augmented the
uncertainty and vulnerability of low-income
families (FAO, 2009).
The increase of the temperatures associated
with climate change upsurges the frequency
and intensity of natural disasters and can
lead to the expansion of arid areas, greater
desertication, and a changing agricultural
frontier, distressing the productive processes
and, directly, the human food system.
Likewise, some eects can be generated
in the epidemiology of animals and pests,
creating more risks and uncertainties, which
leads to a loss of assets and productivity in
vast agricultural sectors, impacting global food
security. Additionally, climate change can
directly aect intertropical glaciers, generating
a reduction in water availability and the
generation of hydroelectric capacity in Bolivia,
Peru, Colombia, and Ecuador. The reduction of
water could lead to drastic changes in tropical
forests turning them into savannas, as well as
causing arid and semi-arid vegetation in the
dierent territories (Claro, 2019). All these
eects could directly and strongly aect the
most vulnerable people since the production
costs of dierent foods and products can rapidly
increase in the event of a possible shortage of
resources.
According to the outlook of nutritional food
security in Latin America and the Caribbean in
2020, it is needed to be focused on new policies
and investments to improve the food security
system and avoid malnutrition in the dierent
populations, especially in children under the age
of 5 years. Additionally, political commitment
and public attention are sought to face food
and nutrition positively, as fundamental axes
to guarantee a healthy life and promote well-
being for all ages, becoming the roadmap that
facilitates the rights and objectives of the 2030
agenda. One of the fundamental points is to
seek the eradication of child malnutrition. To
monitor the dierent forms of malnutrition,
some indicators are considered, for example,
growth retardation, lack of necessary nutrients,
infections, and care practices (FAO, 2020).
Considering the Second International
Conference on Nutrition held in Rome (FAO
and Organización Mundial de la Salud, OMS,
2014), the prevalence of undernourishment
has moderately decreased, but the absolute
number of aected people remains unacceptably
high worldwide: there were about 805 million
people with chronic hunger by 2012-2014.
Chronic malnutrition as measured by growth
retardation has decreased, but 161 million
children under the age of 5 years were aected
by 2013. Acute malnutrition, on the other
hand, aected 51 million children of the same
age. Malnutrition has been the main cause of
death for children between 2.5 and 5 years of
age, contributing to about 45% of such deaths
in 2013. More than 2000 million people have
suered from deciencies of micronutrients,
especially vitamin A, iodine, iron, and zinc.
Overweight and obesity among children and
old people have quickly increased in all regions:
about 42 million children were aected by
overweight in 2013, and 500 million adults
presented obesity in 2010. Dietary risk factors
linked to inadequate physical activity explain
almost 10% of the global burden of morbidity
and disability.
In 20 of 23 countries from Latin America
and the Caribbean, the percentage of the
undernourished population was reduced by
1990. The increasing of internal availability
per inhabitant was a central factor that slightly
compensated for the raising of inequalities in
food access. Among the countries that suered
a deterioration in the undernourishment
index, two Central American countries can be
mentioned: Salvador and Guatemala. This is
mainly caused by decreasing in the food supply
per inhabitant as a result of the drop in internal
production and ability to import. Slow growth
94
Revista Criterios - 28 (2) julio - diciembre 2021 Rev. Criterios - pp. 91-110
ISSN: 0121-8670, ISSN Electrónico: 2256-1161,
https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.criterios
Universidad Mariana, San Juan de Pasto, Nariño, Colombia.
Impacto de factores socioeconómicos en la nutrición de niños
entre 2,5 a 5 años en la ciudad de Pasto, Colombia
Gloria Córdoba
John Fuertez
Jonier Martínez
remains important in Central America. In
Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua
more than 20% of children 2.5 – 5 years of age
were aected by this situation while Costa Rica
was placed among the countries with close
values or less than 5% (Comisión Económica
para América Latina y El Caribe, CEPAL,
2004). Latin America and the Caribbean is the
only region that achieved to reduce hungry,
anticipating the food crisis since the availability
of products (e.g., cereals), associated with
climatology diversity, contributed signicantly
to access to food for the most vulnerable
people, strengthening food and nutritional
security in the region and becoming an
important supplier of food worldwide (Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
FAO, 2015). However, with the raising of food
prices and subsequent economic crisis, this
trend was reversed, which implicated that food
security acquires importance in the political
and social agenda of such countries. For a
region that presents surplus in food availability,
estimations from the United Nations Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2012) showed
that the undernourished population reached
52.5 million people, equivalent to 9% of the
population and 600 thousand less than the
value in 2009.
From 2010 to 2019, it is possible to visualize
a decrease in hunger by 16.6%, being the
lowest level since 2000; sixteen countries
have reduced the prevalence moving towards
the achievement of the objectives of the 2030
agenda. Among them, Honduras stands out
with a decrease of 3.5 percentage points in
its prevalence of undernourishment. República
Dominicana reduced it by 3 percentage points
and Ecuador by 2.9 points. During the same
period, Bolivia, Colombia, and El Salvador also
stand out, all of them with a reduction of 1.8
percentage points of their prevalence. During
the last decades, malnutrition has shown a
sustained low trend which would cause a real
change in the nutritional, epidemiological, and
demographic prole of these countries (FAO,
2020).
In Colombia, food security had an important role
when the Political Constitution of 1991, article
44, included a balanced diet as a fundamental
right for children (Constitución Política de
Colombia, 1991); also, the articles 63, 64,
and 65 were added to protect agricultural
production and therefore the availability of food
as government’s duties (Constitución Política de
Colombia, 1991; Posada, 2011). However, the
non-fulllment of these duties and deep social
inequality are a matter of concern (Álvarez and
Pérez, 2013). The National Survey of Nutritional
Situation ENSIN-2015 (Instituto Colombiano
de Bienestar Familiar, ICBF, 2015), which is
the statistical operation of national reference
on the nutritional situation of the Colombian
population, allows evaluating the advances and
achievements in early childhood issues in the
last 5 years. According to this survey, chronic
malnutrition decreased from 13.2% in 2010
to 10.8% in 2015 for children under 5 years
old. In 1990, one in four children suered from
chronic malnutrition, while it was only one
in ten, by 2015. Colombia continues within
the 5% goal established by the World Health
Organization (WHO) on acute malnutrition or a
weight-for-height indicator. In 2015, it reached
1.6%, higher than the 0.9% presented in
2010. Global malnutrition, which marks the
weight for age, aects 3.7% of under-age in
the country, less than half of the 1990 record
when it aected 8.6% of children under 5 years
of age.
The negative impact and long-term eect of an
inadequate nutrition level on children have been
pointed out by recent studies (Brazionis, Golley,
Mittinty, Smithers, Emmett, Northstone, and
Lynch, 2013; Dubois, Farmer, Girard, Peterson,
and Tatone-Tokuda, 2007; Montañez, 2017;
Noble, Houston, Brito, Bartsch, Kan, Kuperman,
Akshoomo, Amaral, Bloss, Libiger, Schork,
Murray, Casey, Chang, Ernst, Frazier, Gruen,
Kennedy, Van Zijl, and Sowell, 2015; Noble,
2017; Persaud, Maguire, Lebovic, Carsley,
Khovratovich, Randall McCrindle, Parkin, and
Birken, 2013; Silva, 2016; Volger, Sheng, Tong,
Zhao, Fan, Zhang, Ge, Ho, Hays, and Yao,
2017). Early malnutrition decreases learning
capabilities, school performance, economic
productivity in adult life, and the ability to take
care of new generations. Dierent factors such
as production, availability, and transportation
of food, water quality, economic resources,
social and economic inequalities have shown an
important inuence on children nutrition level
(Montañez, 2017; Noble, 2017; Noble et al.,
2015; Silva, 2016). This issue traps people
into a circle that keeps malnutrition and delays
the development of countries. Characteristics
of poor homes and their members have been
strongly related to food security through family
income, size, composition and type of home
(i.e., whether there is a male or female as
household head), education level of individuals
and their job conditions, Dehollain, 1995).
Although food security became a major concern
for nutrition security and health worldwide,
95
Revista Criterios - 28 (2) julio - diciembre 2021 Rev. Criterios - pp. 91-110
ISSN: 0121-8670, ISSN Electrónico: 2256-1161,
https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.criterios
Universidad Mariana, San Juan de Pasto, Nariño, Colombia.
Impacto de factores socioeconómicos en la nutrición de niños
entre 2,5 a 5 años en la ciudad de Pasto, Colombia
Gloria Córdoba
John Fuertez
Jonier Martínez
to the best of our knowledge, no study has
deeply investigated the issue of food security
in Pasto, Colombia. In the present study,
socioeconomic factors, key of the nutritional
system in homes with children between 2.5 to
5 years of age were considered, as the most
vulnerable child population. For this purpose,
an analytic and theoretical review was carried
out to understand and recognize factors with
direct inuence on child development. Factors
such as income, consumption, costs of food,
accessibility, and education level were initially
assessed, through a statistical analysis of
data collected by a survey instrument. Data
collection was conducted from October to
November 2017. About 300 families located
at 12 communes were initially surveyed in
the urban area of Pasto city. Finally, some
suggestions were stated to promote public
policies on food security at national and
probably at an international scale. An actual
impact on homes is desired, seeking out better
conditioning of children nutritional system
from dierent economic compounds and their
relationship with factors of high inuence. This
is proposed to provide the best conditions of
physical and mental development for children
in the range of age considered.
2. Methods
This study compiled available information and
examined data collected from a questionnaire
that was distributed to parents and caretakers.
About 300 families, located at 12 communes
from the urban area of Pasto city in Colombia,
were randomly surveyed, as an initial approach.
This location was chosen for demonstratives
purposes of the methodological strategy
implemented herein. The total sample size
(N = 300) was computed by using random
sampling for conglomerates and stratied
for the urban area assessed. An acceptable
accuracy represented by a relative standard
error less than or equal to 5%, a prevalence
of acute malnutrition of 4%, a loss percentage
of 10%, and a condence level of 95% were
assumed to set such a sample size.
The population under study was about 17,652
boys and girls between the ages of 2.5 and
5 whose families resided in the urban area of
Pasto, Colombia, and met the inclusion criteria
established for the survey. Among the inclusion
criteria, the following were considered: (a)
Being between 2.5 and 5 years old since there
exists a high incidence of nutritional factors on
the growth within these ages, and several of the
basic neurocognitive and psychosocial functions
are consolidated in the later development of the
child. The choice of this age range highlights
the fact that the youngest age or lower limit
(2.5 years) often coincides with the beginning
of the acquisition of motor, intellectual, and
communication skills, and formally measurable
characteristics. The highest age or upper limit
(5 years) coincides with the stage prior to
entering school. Before the process of school
inclusion, it has been suggested to carry out
studies at the development and adaptation
level to detect problems of this nature and
to generate intervention proposals (Martínez,
2014). (b) Having a continuous residence for
at least two years in the urban area of Pasto,
Colombia. (c) Voluntary participation and to
sign the informed consent. On the other hand,
having a physical and/or mental disability that
prevents carrying out the previously established
survey is considered within the exclusion
criteria. Children with special pathologies or
neurological pathologies present some degree
of disability that would generate a selection bias
due to malnutrition inherent to the underlying
pathology.
A multistage sampling by conglomerates
(communes) with a systematic sampling was
designed to guarantee a representative and
reliable measurement. This procedure allowed
us to obtain a broad view and record information
of dierent economic factors that aect the
food security of children with ages between 2.5
and 5 years. As well as to conduct an analytical
study with families that belonged to communes
stratied according to the National Planning
Department of Colombia (DNP). Among the
factors assessed, the income, consumption,
costs of food, accessibility, education level,
productive activities, living conditions, and
basic services were considered due to their
relevant impact on the food and nutrition
situation (Álvarez and Pérez, 2013; Lynch and
Kaplan, 2000; Noble, 2017; Noble et al., 2015;
Oh and Hong, 2003; Smith, Kassa, and Winters,
2017; Volger et al., 2017). Data collection
was conducted from October to November
2017. This work was approved by the ethics
committee of the Research Center from the
Mariana University. Written informed consent
was obtained from parents and caretakers to
use the survey data. The statistical software
Statistical Product and Service Solutions
(SPSS) was used to perform the statistical
analysis (i.e., univariate and bivariate analysis)
and descriptive development of this work.
96
Revista Criterios - 28 (2) julio - diciembre 2021 Rev. Criterios - pp. 91-110
ISSN: 0121-8670, ISSN Electrónico: 2256-1161,
https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.criterios
Universidad Mariana, San Juan de Pasto, Nariño, Colombia.
Impacto de factores socioeconómicos en la nutrición de niños
entre 2,5 a 5 años en la ciudad de Pasto, Colombia
Gloria Córdoba
John Fuertez
Jonier Martínez
3. Results and discussion
3.1 Demographic aspects
Pasto city is the capital of the Nariño
department. It is located in the southwest of
Colombia. Twelve communes make up the city,
which is placed at the foot of Galeras volcano
whose summit rises 4,276 (14,029 ft.) meters
above sea level. This city has 1,181 km
2
, and
the urban area corresponds to 14.7 km
2
. The
average temperature is 13.9 °C (57.02 °F).
The urban population is 455,678 inhabitants
integrated by 220,492 males and 235,186
females (Departamento Administrativo
Nacional de Estadística, DANE, 2018).
From 300 individuals surveyed in this study,
150 children were males and the other 150
subjects corresponded to females with ages
between 2.5 and 5 years. About 118 subjects
or 39.3% of the surveyed population belonged
to stratum 2 according to the socio-economic
stratication system in Colombia. Considering
stratum 3, only 87 subjects or 29% were
identied while 64 subjects, or 21.3% belonged
to stratum 1. The lowest participation was
found with 5 subjects or 1.7% that belonged to
stratum 5. The 8.7% remaining corresponded
to individuals from stratum 4. The socio-
economic stratication system classies areas
on a scale from 1 to 6 with 1 as the lowest
income area and 6 as the highest one (Esbjørn
and Fjalland-Pérez, 2012). It should be noted
that no children in the range of age assessed
herein were found in stratum 6.
3.2 Food availability and access
3.2.1 Sociodemographic factors and
marketing centers
The access and availability of food for children
directly depend on parents and mechanisms
that are used to provide and keep a healthy and
nutritive feeding. According to the univariate
analysis, 161 families, corresponding to 53.7%,
usually purchased food in marketplaces. About
70 families or 23.3% preferred neighborhood
stores, and 64 families or 21.3% selected
shopping centers; 5 families or 1.7% reported
using another sort of mechanism.
Considering the bivariate analysis (Table 1),
most of the surveyed families purchased food
in marketplaces. However, families whose
income was greater than $781,242 COP (> 1
MMW, monthly minimum wage), corresponding
to 31.9% of surveyed subjects, purchased in
shopping centers. On the other hand, families
with only 1 MMW, corresponding to 29.4%,
selected neighborhood stores. Most families
whose income was not enough preferred
marketplaces and neighborhood stores,
considered as the second choice to purchase
their food while families with enough income
preferred marketplaces and shopping centers.
Bearing in mind the Chi-square test, the null
hypothesis ‘Sociodemographic factors have no
relation to the location where food is purchased’
was rejected by the following factors: Income
that families earn and whether this income is
enough. A low p-value (<0.05) was computed
for these factors; thus, the location where
families purchased food was linked to their
income and whether their wage was enough
to supply their needs. Other sociodemographic
factors such as economic activities that families
develop and the time at which these activities
are carried out, did not have a signicant
dierence in relation to the location where food
was purchased.
The above results showed that families can
acceptably feed their children according to
the dierent systems of local distribution,
processing, and marketing available that
cover the amount of demand related to
family budget (United Nations, Committee on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 2001).
Families were able to satisfy their needs based
on the salary earned. Note that Pasto city is
in a region whose adjacent municipalities have
a climatology determined by elevation, which
enables greater access and food availability
at dierent seasons. Additionally, a signicant
number of families developed full-time
commercial activities to keep a stable income.
97
Revista Criterios - 28 (2) julio - diciembre 2021 Rev. Criterios - pp. 91-110
ISSN: 0121-8670, ISSN Electrónico: 2256-1161,
https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.criterios
Universidad Mariana, San Juan de Pasto, Nariño, Colombia.
Impacto de factores socioeconómicos en la nutrición de niños
entre 2,5 a 5 años en la ciudad de Pasto, Colombia
Gloria Córdoba
John Fuertez
Jonier Martínez
Table 1
Sociodemographic factors and marketing centers
Factors Purchase location
p-value
Shopping centers Other Marketplaces
Neighborhood
stores
n % n % n % n %
Income
earned
by fami-
lies
1 MMW 28 15 4 2.1 100 53.5 55 29.4
0.0001
> 1 MMW 36 31.9 1 0.9 61 54 15 13.3
Is the
income
enough
to sup-
ply their
needs?
No 21 14 1 0.7 83 55.3 45 30
0.002
Yes 43 28.7 4 2.7 78 52 25 16.7
Eco-
nomic
activi-
ties that
families
develop
Marketing
of
Goods,
10 13.9 2 2.8 39 54.2 21 29.2
0.525
Services,
provision,
47 23.5 3 1.5 108 54 42 21
production 7 25 0 0 14 50 7 25
Time of
eco-
nomic
activi-
ties
Hours 4 18.2 1 4.5 11 50 1 27.3
0.396
Half time 19 25 2 2.6 35 46.1 20 26.3
Part time 3 8.3 0 0 22 61.1 11 30.6
Full time 38 22.9 2 1.2 93 56 33 19.9
MMW = monthly minimum wage, n = sample size.
Source: this study
In Colombia, families are commonly structured
by two or three children in homes of strata
1, 2, and 3 while one kid is usually raised by
subjects of strata 4, 5, and 6 (Bushnell and
Hudson, 2010), although some of the surveyed
individuals belonged to low strata, parents or
caretakers assured to have at least a high
school education level. Families from higher
strata than 3 claimed to gain a technical or
professional degree. This would allow them
to have better knowledge about not only the
children’s food and health care but how to
avoid their malnutrition. Considering a higher
academic level in the parents or relatives who
take care of the children, better habits could be
achieved with a higher quality of food, avoiding
risks in the child nutrition by presenting greater
conditioning and/or knowledge regarding the
combination of the dierent foods (e.g., cereals,
meats, and legumes) to supply. In addition,
better preparation of the food and better results
in the development of the children in terms
of their physical, psychological, and neuronal
performance might be expected (ICBF, 2013).
Aspects related to food security and nutritional
welfare such as food availability in local markets,
capability to purchase food, and knowledge
about nutritional requirements of children
must be taken into account in order to provide
and keep an acceptable system of feeding and
nutrition for the population (Pelletier, Olson,
and Frongillo, 2001).
98
Revista Criterios - 28 (2) julio - diciembre 2021 Rev. Criterios - pp. 91-110
ISSN: 0121-8670, ISSN Electrónico: 2256-1161,
https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.criterios
Universidad Mariana, San Juan de Pasto, Nariño, Colombia.
Impacto de factores socioeconómicos en la nutrición de niños
entre 2,5 a 5 años en la ciudad de Pasto, Colombia
Gloria Córdoba
John Fuertez
Jonier Martínez
3.2.2 Sociodemographic factors and
purchasing power
About 112 families or 37.3% claimed a purchase
capacity mainly reected on the acquisition of
food products whose supply was established
through one kilogram (2.2 pounds) weight. On
the other hand, 101 families or 33.7% usually
purchased one-pound weight while 30 families
or 10% purchased half a pound weight, and
12 families or 4% purchased only one and a
half pounds. 45 families or 15% claimed a
purchase capacity greater in terms of the above
food products. For this initial analysis, which
allows identifying the relationship between
the evaluated factors and the acquisition of
products, the purchasing frequency of food
products is not in detail considered. A further
description and analysis are subsequently
carried out.
In respect of the bivariate analysis (Table
2), approximately 70 in 100 families whose
income was greater than 1 MMW, commonly
purchased one or more kilograms in weight
among vegetables, fruits, cereals, and mixed
products. One pound and one kilogram of
fruits, vegetables, and cereals were purchased
by 70 in 100 families that earned 1 MMW.
36% of the surveyed subjects that claimed
their income was not enough, purchased one-
pound weight of the above products. Families
with enough income reported purchasing one-
kilogram weight of food. Taking into account
the Chi-square test, the null hypothesis
‘Sociodemographic factors have no relation to
the amount of purchased food’ was rejected by
the following factors: Income that families earn,
economic activities that families develop, and
time at which these activities are carried out.
A low p-value (<0.05) was computed, showing
the purchasing capacity, which is reected in
the acquisition of food products, was mainly
linked to such factors. This suggests that
families had a conditioned budget to acquire
food and satisfy their basic needs.
Among the food of high consumption, mixed
products were mainly selected by 221 families
or 73.7% of surveyed subjects. These products
represent healthy food and likely the most
complex nutrition for children since fruits,
vegetables, and cereals were included (Araújo,
Mendonça, and Souza, 2018). Consumption
of vegetables was reported by 44 families or
14.7% of surveyed subjects while fruits and
cereals were reported by 28 families or 9.3%,
and seven families or 2.3%, respectively.
Complementary studies can be performed to
examine the adequacy of dietary patterns and
nutrient intake of children with ages between
2.5 and 5 years (Oh and Hong, 2003; Volger
et al., 2017).
Table 2
Sociodemographic factors and purchasing power
Factors
Purchasing amount of vegetables, fruits, cereals, and
mixed products
p-value
Half a pound
One
pound
One and
a half
pound
One kilogram More
N % n % n % n % n %
Income earned
by families
1
MMW
25 13.4 77 41.2 7 3.7 58 31 20 10.7
0.0001
> 1
MMW
5 4.4 24 21.2 5 4.4 54 47.8 25 22.1
Is the income
enough to supply
their needs?
No 18 12 54 36 4 2.7 47 31.3 27 18
0.103
Yes 12 8 47 31.3 8 5.3 65 43.3 18 12
99
Revista Criterios - 28 (2) julio - diciembre 2021 Rev. Criterios - pp. 91-110
ISSN: 0121-8670, ISSN Electrónico: 2256-1161,
https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.criterios
Universidad Mariana, San Juan de Pasto, Nariño, Colombia.
Impacto de factores socioeconómicos en la nutrición de niños
entre 2,5 a 5 años en la ciudad de Pasto, Colombia
Gloria Córdoba
John Fuertez
Jonier Martínez
Economic activ-
ities that families
develop
Market-
ing of
Goods,
7 9.7 28 38.9 1 1.4 26 36.1 10 13.9
0.001
ser-
vices,
provi-
sion,
21 10.5 61 30.5 10 5 77 38.5 31 15.5
produc-
tion,
2 7.1 12 42.9 1 3.6 9 32.1 4 14.3
Time of
economic
activities
Hours 2 9.1 7 31.8 2 9.1 7 31.8 4 18.2
0.008
Half
time 9
11.8
28
36.8
1
1.3
24
31.6
14
18.4
Part
time 4
11.1
9
25
2
5.6
17
47.2
4
11.1
Full
time 15
9 57 34.3 7 4.2
64
38.6
23
13.9
MMW = monthly minimum wage, n = sample size
Source: this study
Through the bivariate analysis (Table 3) was
observed that families with greater income than
1 MMW commonly purchased food every week
and every 15 days. Families who claimed their
income was not enough, purchased food daily
and weekly. According to the Chi-square test,
the null hypothesis ‘Sociodemographic factors
have no relation to the purchase frequency of
food’ was rejected by the following factors:
Income that families earn and whether this
income is enough to satisfy their needs. A low
p-value (<0.05) was computed for such factors.
Thus, the purchase frequency of food was
linked to these factors evaluated. Regardless of
the income earned, families weekly purchased
food to meet the nutritional requirements of
children. Families who earned a greater income
than 1 MMW, purchased a high amount of food,
which would allow extending the purchase
frequency of required products. This is likely
related to the low cost of products, making
them accessible to the family budget, which
enabled to acquire food in dierent amounts
and locations (Hernández, 2006).
Economic accessibility implicates that personal
or family nancial costs associated with the
acquisition of necessary food for an adequate
diet must be at a certain level so that the
provision and satisfaction of other basic needs
are not threatened or in danger. This economic
accessibility is applied to any type or right of
acquisition to obtain food, and it is a measure
of satisfaction for the enjoyment of the right to
adequate food. Socially vulnerable groups such
as people without land and other particularly
impoverished segments of the population
can require special attention to satisfy their
basic needs (Álvarez and Pérez, 2013; United
Nations, Committee on Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights, 2001)social and cultural
rights. Ginebra}, 1999. In this study, the
accessibility and availability of food to feed
children from dierent communities of Pasto
city were observed. Despite low income earned
in low strata (i.e., 1 and 2), families were
able to purchase food and nourish children.
Additionally, dierent strategies were used to
acquire products from the family basket even
though the low income and purchasing power of
Colombian currency. This can be attributed to
the strong economic inequality in the country,
which is mainly supported by the income
earned (Vélez, Azevedo, and Posso-Suarez,
2011)de educación, de salud y TICs, y a niveles
adecuados de nutrición, independientemente
de las circunstancias menos favorables del
hogar y del lugar que ellos habitan? Durante
la última década Colombia logró importantes
avances en varios Índices de Oportunidades
Humanas, pero aún subsisten considerables
brechas de oportunidades entre niños en
circunstancias favorables y desfavorables.
Las siete 05res brechas de oportunidades se
dan en la culminacion de educación primaria,
media y secundaria a tiempo, en la Seguridad
Alimentaria, en el acceso a Agua y Saneamiento,
y en el acceso a Internet. En la comparación de
regiones sobresalen los avances de la región
Oriental (compuesta por los departamentos de
Boyacá, Cundinamarca, Meta y Santanderes.
Thus, unfavorable conditions are commonly
100
Revista Criterios - 28 (2) julio - diciembre 2021 Rev. Criterios - pp. 91-110
ISSN: 0121-8670, ISSN Electrónico: 2256-1161,
https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.criterios
Universidad Mariana, San Juan de Pasto, Nariño, Colombia.
Impacto de factores socioeconómicos en la nutrición de niños
entre 2,5 a 5 años en la ciudad de Pasto, Colombia
Gloria Córdoba
John Fuertez
Jonier Martínez
suered by low-income families that seek out various economic alternatives to meet the nutritional
requirements of children and other expenses.
Table 3
Sociodemographic factors and purchasing frequency of food products
Factors Frequency
p-valueDaily Weekly
Every15
days
Monthly
n % n % n % n %
Income
earned
by fami-
lies
1
MMW
81 43.3 49 26.2 30 16 27 14.4
0.001
> 1
MMW
24 21.2 49 43.4 25 22.1 15 13.3
Is the
income
enough
to sup-
ply their
needs?
NO 63 42 42 28 20 13.3 25 16.7
0.008
YES 42 28 56 37.3 35 23.3 17 11.3
MMW = monthly minimum wage, n = sample size
Source: this study
Between 2002 and 2006, the Colombian
government had various programs to
strengthen food security, carried out within the
framework of the national development plan
as food assistance. Infant breakfast programs
attended 322,052 children from 6 months
to 5 years old, reaching 64% of coverage.
School restaurants were beneted from food
supplements with a coverage of 58%. For their
part, 62,118 agricultural micro-entrepreneurs
were beneted from employment generation
through the Fondo de Financiamiento del
Sector Agropecuario (FINAGRO). Quinoa
production, for example, was supported in
the department of Nariño. The participation
of 4,510 young farmers with subsidies for
employment was registered. The establishment
of productive units for special populations
and access to land with 3,595 hectares were
adjudicated. Agricultural equipment and
adaptation of productive land programs were
also implemented (Fonseca and Villamarin,
2004). Although these programs are important
and keep working nowadays, there have not
been direct eects on poor families since their
income remains at a low level in comparison
to high-income families. However, among
the mentioned programs, infant breakfast
programs have strongly favored children
2.5 – 5 years of age, avoiding their chronic
malnutrition, at least in the location under
evaluation. Furthermore, the lack of food
products has not been reported in Pasto city
due to agricultural growth and the variety of
climates in the Andean region.
3.2.3 Sociodemographic factors and
preferred food
Among the food of high consumption,
protein-rich foods were remarkable. Chicken
and meat were preferred, according to the
univariable analysis. These products excelled
with percentages of 48.7% and 43.7%,
respectively. Fish and other types of protein-
rich foods showed low consumption with
4% and 3.7%, respectively. Considering the
bivariate analysis, all families selected chicken
and meat regardless of the income earned and
whether this income was enough (Table 4).
101
Revista Criterios - 28 (2) julio - diciembre 2021 Rev. Criterios - pp. 91-110
ISSN: 0121-8670, ISSN Electrónico: 2256-1161,
https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.criterios
Universidad Mariana, San Juan de Pasto, Nariño, Colombia.
Impacto de factores socioeconómicos en la nutrición de niños
entre 2,5 a 5 años en la ciudad de Pasto, Colombia
Gloria Córdoba
John Fuertez
Jonier Martínez
Table 4
Sociodemographic factors and protein-rich foods of high consumption
Factors Protein-rich foods
p-value
Meat Fish Chicken Other
n % n % n % n %
Income
earned
by fami-
lies
1
MMW
84 44.9 6 3.2 90 48.1 7 3.7
0.803
> 1
MMW
47 41.6 6 5.3 56 49.6 4 3.5
Is the
income
enough
to sup-
ply their
needs?
No 68 45.3 4 2.7 71 47.3 7 4.7
0.484
Yes 63 42 8 5.3 75 50 4 2.7
MMW = monthly minimum wage, n = sample size
Source: this study.
Regarding the Chi-square test, the null hypothesis ‘Sociodemographic factors have no relation to
the protein-rich foods of high consumption’ was accepted by the factors evaluated: Income that
families earn and whether this income is enough to satisfy their needs. A p-value greater than
0.05 was computed. This showed that the consumption of meat, chicken, sh and other types
of protein-rich foods were not related to such sociodemographic factors. On the other hand,
considering the amount of protein-rich foods purchased, families whose income was greater than
1 MMW commonly purchased kilograms in weight while families that earned 1 MMW purchased
pounds in weight. According to the bivariate analysis (Table 5) and the Chi-square test, the
null hypothesis ‘Sociodemographic factors have no relation to the amount of protein-rich foods
purchased’ was rejected by the factors: Income that families earn and whether this income is
enough to satisfy their needs. A low p-value (<0.05) was computed, showing that the amount of
purchased protein was linked to such factors.
Table 5
Sociodemographic factors and amount of protein-rich foods purchased
Factors Amount of protein-rich foods purchased
p-value
Half a
pound
One
pound
One and
a half
pound
One ki-
logram
More
n % n % n % n % n %
Income
earned by
families
1
MMW
25 13.4 95 50.8 12 6.4 47 25.1 8 4.3
0.0001
> 1
MMW
8 7.1 24 21.2 13 11.5 54 47.8 14 12.4
Is the
income
enough
to sup-
ply their
needs?
No 20 13.2 69 46 9 6 41 27.3 11 7.3
0.040
Yes 13 8.7 50 33.3 16 10.3 60 40 11 7.3
MMW = monthly minimum wage, n = sample size
Source: this study
102
Revista Criterios - 28 (2) julio - diciembre 2021 Rev. Criterios - pp. 91-110
ISSN: 0121-8670, ISSN Electrónico: 2256-1161,
https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.criterios
Universidad Mariana, San Juan de Pasto, Nariño, Colombia.
Impacto de factores socioeconómicos en la nutrición de niños
entre 2,5 a 5 años en la ciudad de Pasto, Colombia
Gloria Córdoba
John Fuertez
Jonier Martínez
When the purchase frequency was evaluated, 35% of surveyed subjects daily purchased protein-
rich foods while 32.7% made it weekly. Families that purchased every 15 days and every month
registered 18.3% and 14%, respectively. According to the bivariate analysis (Table 6), all families,
regardless of the income earned and whether this income was enough, had a daily purchase
frequency. Since the p-value was greater than 0.05, the purchase frequency of meat, chicken,
sh, and other types of protein-rich foods was not linked to the income earned and whether this
income was enough to satisfy their basic needs.
Table 6
Sociodemographic factors and purchase frequency of protein-rich foods
Factors Frequency
p-value
Daily Weekly Every 15 days Monthly
n % n % n % n %
Income earned by families
1
MMW
108 57.8 57 30.5 11 5.9 11 5.9
0.708
> 1
MMW
63 55.8 40 35.4 6 5.3 4 3.5
Is the income enough to
supply their needs?
No 93 62 10 6.7 7 4.7 40 26.7
0.090
Yes 78 52 5 3.3 10 6.7 57 38
MMW = monthly minimum wage, n = sample size
Source: this study
Emphasizing on the preference of organic and inorganic food, 279 families or 93% of surveyed
subjects preferred the rst ones, while 21 families or 7% chose the second ones. Based on the
bivariate analysis (Table 7), note that all families, regardless the income earned and whether this
income was enough, preferred organic food. Again, a p-value greater than 0.05 was computed;
therefore, there was not relationship between the preference of mentioned food and factors
assessed.
Table 7
Sociodemographic factors and preference of food
Factors Preference
p-valueInorganic Organic
n % n %
Income earned by families
1 MMW 16 8.6 171 91.4
0.129
> 1 MMW 5 4.4 108 95.6
Is the income enough to
supply their needs?
No 14 9.3 136 90.7
0.087
Yes 7 4.7 143 95.3
MMW = monthly minimum wage, n = sample size
Source: this study
Based on the existence of the National Food and Nutrition Security Plan 2012-2019, which involves
dierent action lines (e.g., food security, consumer protection through food quality and safety,
prevention and control of micronutrient deciency, prevention and treatment of infectious and
parasitic diseases, promotion and support for breastfeeding, promotion of healthcare, nutrition
and healthy lifestyles, research, and evaluation of nutritional and food topics, training of human
resources in nutrition and food policies), its promotion and timely implementation are encouraged
(Gobierno Nacional de la República de Colombia, 2013). Our results suggest that children did
103
Revista Criterios - 28 (2) julio - diciembre 2021 Rev. Criterios - pp. 91-110
ISSN: 0121-8670, ISSN Electrónico: 2256-1161,
https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.criterios
Universidad Mariana, San Juan de Pasto, Nariño, Colombia.
Impacto de factores socioeconómicos en la nutrición de niños
entre 2,5 a 5 años en la ciudad de Pasto, Colombia
Gloria Córdoba
John Fuertez
Jonier Martínez
not present malnutrition problems in the range of age assessed herein; organic products rich in
essential nutrients that reinforce children’s growth were mainly supplied. Surveyed subjects from
strata 1 and 2 daily purchased food what would suggest the consumption of fresh food. People
from high strata preferred to purchase every week and month. Additional evaluations, however,
can be performed to identify the daily nutrient intake of children and to compare them with levels
stated by recommended dietary allowances (Oh and Hong, 2003; Volger et al., 2017).
It is important to recognize the agricultural production in Colombia. Dierent products can be
found in the Andean and Pacic regions. Departments such as Cundinamarca, Antioquia, Boyacá,
Nariño, Huila, Tolima, Santander, for example, provide agricultural products to the whole country
(Quiroga, López, and Gordillo, 2013). Since Pasto city is in the Andean region, food products of
good quality are commonly provided. This feature and the high production level contribute to
decreasing product prices. Hence, major accessibility can be expected, favoring the low-income
populations and avoiding malnutrition. Furthermore, a favorable consumption of protein-rich foods
(i.e., meat and chicken) was reported, which suggests the availability and good supply of livestock
products in the region, complementing the nutritional requirements of children (Oh and Hong,
2003; Volger et al., 2017).
3.2.4 Sociodemographic factors and family income
Among surveyed subjects, families whose income was greater than 1 MMW corresponded to 113
individuals or 37.7% while families that earned 1 MMW accounted for 187 individuals, equivalent
to 62.3%. On the other hand, 50% of surveyed families claimed satisfaction with their income
earned while the other 50% was dissatised since their wage was not enough to cover and satisfy
all their needs and expenses.
According to the bivariate analysis (Table 8), families that earned 1 MMW and more than this, and
regardless of whether their income was enough, spent more than $9000 COP on fruits, vegetables,
and cereals. The null hypothesis of the Chi-square test ‘Sociodemographic factors have no relation
to the amount of money spent on food was accepted by the following factors: Income that families
earn and whether this is enough to satisfy their needs. A p-value greater than 0.05 was computed,
showing that the amount of money spent on food was not linked to such factors.
Table 8
Sociodemographic factors and money spent on food
Factors Amount (COP)
p-val-
ue
$1000 - 3000
$3001 –
6000
$6001 –
9000
More
n % n % n % n %
Income earned by
families
1 MMW 31 16.6 36 19.3 51 27.3 69 36.9
0.435
> 1
MMW
12 10.6 19 16.8 34 30.1 48 42.5
Is the income enough
to supply their
needs?
No 26 17.3 25 16.7 39 26 60 40
0.393
Yes 17 11.3 30 20 46 30.7 57 39
MMW = monthly minimum wage, n = sample size
Source: this study.
Even though there exists a growing population with greater family income, a similar pattern of
spending on products among families that earned 1 MMW and more than 1 MMW was observed. This
behavior was shown in all communes of surveyed subjects regardless of their social stratication.
A major demand of work, however, is needed to increase the family budget, which would allow
to improve the consumption capacity of food products and promote a sustained economic growth
(Smith et al., 2017). An adequate nutrition level guarantees that children have good health status
and become the human capital who will ultimately contribute to the projection and development of
any country in dierent economic activities through their physical and mental strength (Montañez,
104
Revista Criterios - 28 (2) julio - diciembre 2021 Rev. Criterios - pp. 91-110
ISSN: 0121-8670, ISSN Electrónico: 2256-1161,
https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.criterios
Universidad Mariana, San Juan de Pasto, Nariño, Colombia.
Impacto de factores socioeconómicos en la nutrición de niños
entre 2,5 a 5 años en la ciudad de Pasto, Colombia
Gloria Córdoba
John Fuertez
Jonier Martínez
2017; Noble, 2017; Noble et al., 2015; Ñustes
and González, 2017). It is highlighted that the
income level is directly associated with work,
therefore, having a source of income through
a productive economic activity is essential.
This allows purchasing goods and services that
meet the family and children basic needs (
Cumbre Mundial sobre la Alimentación, 1999;
Smith et al., 2017).
Given the macroeconomic policies, there is
not true equity in terms of income distribution
or national income; people located at the
center of Colombia have a high-income level,
exceeding one monthly minimum wage, while
inhabitants located in Southern Colombia
have an income that is mostly averaged at
one monthly minimum wage with a little
more, what generates a great social inequality
(Álvarez and Pérez, 2013). Regarding this, it
is needed to seek out better redistribution of
economic sources so that greater solvency
can be generated on population, as well as
an improvement of the food condition and
acquisition. Additionally, it is suggested to
increase the coverage of production programs
for self-consumption and food assistance
for the most vulnerable territories, allowing
families to be able to acquire foods that make
up the family basket (Fonseca and Villamarin,
2004).
3.3 Costs of food
Interestingly, the cost of food products did not
aect the consumers surveyed in this study.
The product availability allowed to acquire
food at low costs, which facilitated keeping
an adequate diet for children. Cereals, fruits,
vegetables, mixed products, meat, and chicken
were preferred by surveyed families. Note
that Pasto city has higher access to food than
other municipalities located in the department
of Nariño. Considering the food and nutrition
situation in Nariño and Colombia, there exists
a remarkable dierence linked to food access,
which makes it important to take action and
implement policies according to the local
needs that contribute to overcoming poverty
and closing gaps (Araújo et al., 2018; Quiroga
et al., 2013; Smith et al., 2017).
Taking into account the law of supply and
demand in the market, it is needed to achieve
a balance between the income and costs of
dierent products in a view to make accessible
goods and services to consumers and decrease
the famine level. This means that prices must
be exible in such a way the income earned
by individuals allows them to permanently
maintain the consumption of food products.
3.4 Education level
Considering the education level of surveyed
subjects, 109 females or 36.3% reported to
reach secondary level. Undergraduate level
was represented by 98 females; that is, 32.7%.
There were two females or 0.7% without any
education level. Technical education accounted
for 59 individuals or 19.7%. Postgraduate
education was registered by eight females or
2.7%, and only 24 females or 8% reached
primary education level. Regarding the education
level of males, 112 individuals or 37.3% stated
to have secondary education while 81 males
or 27% claimed to gain bachelor’s degree.
Only 2.3% or 7 individuals claimed to reach
postgraduate education. 17.3% and 9% had
technical and primary education, respectively.
7% did not have any education level. Allowing
for the education level of caretakers, 103
individuals, corresponding to 34.3%, stated
to have secondary education and three people
or 1% claimed to gain postgraduate studies
while 61 people or 20.3% did not have any
education level. Undergraduate education was
reported by 58 individuals or 19.3% while 42
individuals or 14% reached primary education.
Only 33 individuals or 11% claimed to gain
technical education. A signicant percentage
of people that obtained secondary education
was observed. This suggests an acceptable
preparation or basic knowledge regarding
food handling and nutrition for children in the
dierent communes of Pasto city.
The low education level of parents or caretakers,
as consequence of poverty, is accompanied
by occupational insertion in unfavorable
conditions, in terms of stability and income
level; this can negatively aect the school
performance of children and their nutritional
status. More highly educated individuals may
be better able to stimulate their children’s
intellectual development, having better income
that would allow to acquire better material
sources such as healthy food and medical care
(Noble et al., 2015). Malnutrition limits the
intellectual potential of nations. The intellectual
resources rather than the natural or physical
resources are who ultimately determine the
truly country power. No nation wishes to waste
its greatest resource: the intellectual power
of its people. Therefore, investment in both
education and nutrition should be taken as a
priority; this cannot be considered as a luxury
(Oh and Hong, 2003).
Evaluating the low education level of surveyed
subjects, at least favorable conditions in terms
105
Revista Criterios - 28 (2) julio - diciembre 2021 Rev. Criterios - pp. 91-110
ISSN: 0121-8670, ISSN Electrónico: 2256-1161,
https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.criterios
Universidad Mariana, San Juan de Pasto, Nariño, Colombia.
Impacto de factores socioeconómicos en la nutrición de niños
entre 2,5 a 5 años en la ciudad de Pasto, Colombia
Gloria Córdoba
John Fuertez
Jonier Martínez
of stability and income level were registered: a positive impact was generated on children’s
nutrition, and malnutrition was not identied that could compromise children’s intellectual and
physical development (Noble et al., 2015; Noble, 2017). Additionally, the education level of
females with mother role, time spent on food preparation and their jobs, have shown an important
impact on children diet. Interestingly, females with high education level seem to have a better
capability of eciently use resources linked to food in homes (Dehollain, 1995). Adult nutrition
education focusing on practical nutrition knowledge can be a useful and important means of
nutrition intervention for better household food situation and child nutrition among low-income
urban families (Oh and Hong, 2003).
3.5 Productive activities of population
Dierent economic activities were carried out by surveyed subjects to supply food and meet
the nutritional requirements of children in the range of age evaluated. 200 subjects claimed to
conduct activities of services provision (e.g., kitchen assistant, babysitters, teachers, and other
professions), corresponding to 66.7%. Marketing of goods (e.g., street vendors, store sellers,
product distributors) included 72 surveyed families, corresponding to 24%. Only 28 families
claimed to belong to the production area (e.g., artisan, bricklayer), corresponding to 9.3%.
Productive development according to work schedules showed the following picture: 166 families
or 55.35% worked full time. Half-time was reported by 76 families or 25.3% while part-time was
registered by 36 families or 12%. A total of 22 families or 7.3% worked following a schedule in
terms of hours per day.
According to the bivariate analysis (Table 9), service provision was the most relevant economic
activity. A p-value greater than 0.05 was computed, showing that the economic activity was
not linked to the income earned. Considering the productive development according to work
schedules, full-time activities were mainly selected. A p-value greater than 0.05 showed that time
spent on economic activities was not related to the income earned (Table 10). Note that most of
the surveyed subject conducted economic activities concerning informal jobs.
Table 9
Sociodemographic factors and economic activity
Factors Economic activity
p-value
Marketing of
goods
Services provision Production
n % n % n %
Income that
families earn
1 MMW 48 25.7 120 64.2 19 10.2
0.496
> 1 MMW 24
21.2
80
70.8
9
8
MMW = monthly minimum wage, n = sample size
Source: this study.
Table 10
Sociodemographic factors and work schedule
Factors Time of economic activities
p-value
Hours Half time
Part
time
Full time
n % n % n % n %
Income that
families earn
1 MMW 15 8 50 26.7 24 12.8 98 52.4
0.623
> 1 MMW 7
6.2
26
23
12
10.6
68
60.2
MMW = monthly minimum wage, n = sample size
Source: this study.
106
Revista Criterios - 28 (2) julio - diciembre 2021 Rev. Criterios - pp. 91-110
ISSN: 0121-8670, ISSN Electrónico: 2256-1161,
https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.criterios
Universidad Mariana, San Juan de Pasto, Nariño, Colombia.
Impacto de factores socioeconómicos en la nutrición de niños
entre 2,5 a 5 años en la ciudad de Pasto, Colombia
Gloria Córdoba
John Fuertez
Jonier Martínez
Regardless of the income earned, people had
access to market, both nancial and service
provision, which allowed to provide food
security to families in the location evaluated
(Delgadillo, 2004). As early mentioned, the
department of Nariño has a variety of climates
and a rich hydrographic system that enable a
constant production of food and permanent
acquisition in Pasto city, particularly. This
feature and its closeness to Ecuador also
enable active commercialization of products
that ensure the provision of food whenever is
needed.
The marginality in food production has been the
fundamental reason to dene food insecurity in
a certain agro-ecological zone, distorting the
sense of food security since it is based on the
production and income generation capacities
that allow the acquisition of food and do not
on the production of themselves, necessarily
(Delgadillo, 2004). Although Pasto city did not
show an outstanding productive marginality
of food, children kept an adequate nutritional
status. Additionally, its geographic location
has facilitated the acquisition of products at a
low price (e.g., cereals and articles from the
family basket), taking into account the import
and contraband activities performed on the
border with Ecuador. Considering the economic
opening and land distribution in Colombia, a
decrease in production and harvest area of
main transient and permanent crops have
been reported in the later years (Álvarez and
Pérez, 2013). This situation has led to import
products for meeting the food demand of the
population (Mejía, 2016).
3.6 Living conditions and basic services
Regarding this topic, overcrowding was not
registered. According to the survey data,
children under excellent health conditions were
reported by 151 families, corresponding to
50.3%. Good health conditions were reported
by 133 families or 44.3%, and regular health
conditions were considered by 15 families or
5%. A single-family or 0.3% had a child under
bad health status. Concerning basic services
such as electric energy, natural gas, and water
availability, 274 families or 91.3% graded them
as good, 22 families or 7.3% assigned a regular
grade, and 4 families or 1.3% graded them as
bad services. In view of the aliation system
to entities providing healthcare services, it is
important to keep children under good health
status; 177 families or 59% belonged to the
subsidized regime (i.e., healthcare service is
subsidized by the state), 120 families or 40%
stated to be part of the contributory regime
(that is, healthcare service is directly paid by
each taxpayer), and three families or 1% did
not state to have any sort of aliation. This is
likely due to ignorance, the lack of economic
resources, or interest in wanting to belong
to any aliation system. The subsidized and
contributory health care system is chosen
according to the economic status of families.
The above results showed that the health
status and basic services were predominant
according to the location where children
reside. Since satisfactory health conditions and
good basic services were registered without
overcrowding, the risk factor of diseases such
as diarrhea or spreading of epidemics were
minimized (Hernández, Rodríguez, Ferrer, and
Trufero, 2000). This undoubtedly provides an
appropriate environment that enables state
a truly food security for individuals. On the
other hand, belonging to an aliation system
ensures to keep a permanent medical and
dental control that guarantees the welfare and
health status of the children population.
Social security can be conceived as an important
factor in the context of social protection, allowing
to improve the life quality of human beings and
especially children’s life. Since healthcare is a
right, parents and caretakers must provide
children all attention and care through controls
and medical treatment supplied by healthcare
professionals. In Colombia, the health care
system is based on Law 100 of 1993 as a
social protection scheme, which is oered by
the state to citizens through a group of public
and private institutions (Leyes desde 1992,
s. f.). As stated early, children belonged to
subsidized or contributory health care system,
where childhood care stands out for preventing
diseases that cause incurable injuries, which
should have an important eect on their health
status and nutrition level.
Furthermore, it is highlighted that the public
healthcare plan for collective interventions is in
charge of the state and territorial entities, who
become entities of promotion and diseases
prevention for individuals from low strata (i.e.,
1, 2, and 3), as stipulated by Resolution 425 of
2008 of the Colombian’s Ministry of Protection,
now the Ministry of Health and Social Protection.
This provided the guarantee of social security
for children in the range of age assessed.
107
Revista Criterios - 28 (2) julio - diciembre 2021 Rev. Criterios - pp. 91-110
ISSN: 0121-8670, ISSN Electrónico: 2256-1161,
https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.criterios
Universidad Mariana, San Juan de Pasto, Nariño, Colombia.
Impacto de factores socioeconómicos en la nutrición de niños
entre 2,5 a 5 años en la ciudad de Pasto, Colombia
Gloria Córdoba
John Fuertez
Jonier Martínez
4. Conclusions and
implications
Compared to available information, the present
study found that there was no direct relationship
between the poverty level and food insecurity
in Pasto city. Geographic location and cultural
food practices can contribute to determining
dierences between study populations (Álvarez
and Pérez, 2013; Smith et al., 2017; Volger
et al., 2017). The complexity of the operational
concept and denition of food insecurity has
complicated the study of the ‘food insecure’
and eorts to determine clear policy directions.
Previous ndings on the prevalence and severity
of food insecurity are inconsistent and often
depend on the measure used. To overcome
limitations in food security measurement,
the Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations developed the Food Insecurity
Experience Scale, which is the rst survey
protocol to measure people’s direct experience
of food insecurity on a global scale. Using
this new measure, our study contributes to
the understanding of the food insecure by
examining the determinants of food insecurity
within and across countries in Latin America
and the Caribbean (LAC. Additional research,
however, is needed to further characterize
eating habits and nutritional intake in children,
as well as to evaluate long-term eects on
their health status, intellectual and physical
development.
Considering that income level represents an
important aspect of food security, families
were able to provide food to children between
2.5 and 5 years old according to their family
budget. About 1 MMW was earned by 187
families while an income greater than 1 MMW
was earned by 113 families. This showed
that Pasto city provides acceptable economic
conditions to guarantee the food supply of
families and children.
The cost of dierent products is another factor
of great inuence to establish an adequate
intake of nutrients in children from dierent
strata. Although food prices can daily change
due to product availability, for instance, food
products are constantly purchased in markets,
as well as in neighborhood stores and shopping
malls. Regarding the purchase frequency and
purchased amount, families from strata 1, 2,
and 3 usually purchased food daily in terms of
kilograms as a measuring unit.
Food availability is an important element to
achieve food security. Food products must
be constantly oered and provided to the
population. Since malnutrition of children was
not observed, satisfactory conditions were
considered at least in 12 communes from the
urban area of Pasto. This city is strategically
located in the Andean region where all food
types can be usually found. Dierent weathers
determined by elevation (thermal oors)
enable access and food availability during
dierent seasons.
An acceptable preparation or basic knowledge
regarding food handling and children’s nutrition
was found. Although some of the surveyed
individuals belonged to low strata, they had
secondary education levels. Adult education
focusing on practical nutrition knowledge
is essential to generate awareness, and
therefore, to keep children well-fed and avoid
malnutrition.
Favorable results regarding the children’s
nutrition level are also linked to dierent public
policies issued by the state. This supports the
information provided by the municipal food
security plan, which was proposed by the
Secretary of Rural Development for Pasto city.
Guidelines have been established considering
the FAO principles: Food availability obtained
by internal production capacity, food access or
ability to acquire food, use related to population
conditions and consumption, and biological
use. Additionally, complimentary topics such
as education, healthcare, and production
have been included. On the other hand, active
participation of leaders from communes among
institutional actors can be helpful to implement
axes of the departmental and national policy
of food security and nutrition, anticipating and
responding to risk situations such as hunger,
malnutrition, and related diseases.
Among the strategies to improve food security,
the following suggestions are pointed out:
• Diversication of production is needed
to make accessible products of great
consumption at low prices, allowing
better coverage and benet to low-
income families, mainly.
• Teaching campaigns launched by the
Health Secretariat of Municipal Mayor’s
Oce or responsible entities must be
further promoted and supported to
continuously ensure proper feeding. As
well as promotion of education for the
most vulnerable population is essential.
• Basic services of good quality such as
electric energy, natural gas, and water
108
Revista Criterios - 28 (2) julio - diciembre 2021 Rev. Criterios - pp. 91-110
ISSN: 0121-8670, ISSN Electrónico: 2256-1161,
https://doi.org/10.31948/rev.criterios
Universidad Mariana, San Juan de Pasto, Nariño, Colombia.
Impacto de factores socioeconómicos en la nutrición de niños
entre 2,5 a 5 años en la ciudad de Pasto, Colombia
Gloria Córdoba
John Fuertez
Jonier Martínez
must be supplied to ensure family
welfare. It is highlighted the people’s
right to have a proper level of life for
themselves and their families, including
feeding, dressing, proper housing, and
continuously enhancing living conditions.
• It is important to implement and support
projects that allow the reconditioning
of income through partnership and
cooperative development systems so
that salaries can exceed minimum
wages to purchase food within the family
baskets and satisfy family needs. Long-
term strategies that sustain household
productive capacity and employment
should be included.
5. Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support
and resources provided for this work by the
Mariana University and the Municipal Mayor’s
Oce of Pasto city under the project named:
“Characterization of food and nutrition security
of urban households of children between 2.5
and 5 years old from Pasto city, Colombia”.
6. Competing nancial
interests
The authors of this article declare not to have
any conict of interest regarding the work
presented.
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Contribución:
Gloria Córdoba: Principal Investigator. Writing of materials and methods. Results and Discussion.
Preparation of tables.
John Fuertez: Drafting of the manuscript, participation in the analysis of results. Consolidation
of references.
Jonier Martínez: Statistical data processing. Analysis and interpretation of results.
All authors participated in the preparation of the manuscript, read it and approved it.
